Conscription (also known as the draft, call-up or national service) is a general term for involuntary Involuntary is the antonym of voluntary. An involuntary action is one that occurs without volition or will; see volition and will (philosophy). Involuntary may also refer to: enrollment in the service of a country. It is most often used in the specific sense of requiring citizens to serve in the armed forces The armed forces of a country are its government-sponsored defense, fighting forces, and organizations. They exist to further the foreign and domestic policies of their governing body, and to defend that body and the nation it represents from external aggressors. In some countries paramilitary forces are included in a nation's armed forces. Armed. It is known by various names — for example, the most recent conscription program in the United States ^ b. English is the de facto language of American government and the sole language spoken at home by 80% of Americans age five and older. Spanish is the second most commonly spoken language was known colloquially as "the draft Conscription in the United States has been employed several times, usually during war but also during the nominal peace of the Cold War. The United States discontinued the draft in 1973, moving to an all-volunteer military force, thus there is currently no mandatory conscription". Many nations do not maintain conscription forces, instead relying on a volunteer A volunteer military or all-volunteer military is one which derives its manpower from volunteers rather than conscription or mandatory service. A country may offer attractive pay and benefits through military recruitment to attract volunteers. Many countries with volunteer militaries reserve the right to renew conscription in the event of an or professional military most of the time, although many of these countries still reserve the possibility of conscription for wartime and during times of crises.

Referring to compulsory service in the armed forces, the term "conscription" has two main meanings:

The term "conscription" refers only to the mandatory service; thus, those undergoing conscription are known as "conscripts" or, in the United States, "selectees" (from the Selective Service System The Selective Service System is a means by which the United States maintains information on those potentially subject to military conscription. All males between the ages of 18 to 25 are required by law to register within 30 days of their 18th birthday. As of the end of 2008, the names and addresses of over 14 million men are on file).

No armed forces No conscription Plan to abolish conscription in the near future[update] Conscription No information

Contents

History

Ilkum

Around the reign of Hammurabi Hammurabi (Akkadian from Amorite ˤAmmurāpi, "the kinsman is a healer," from ˤAmmu, "paternal kinsman," and Rāpi, "healer"; was the sixth king of Babylon from 1792 BC to 1750 middle chronology (1728 BC – 1686 BC short chronology) He became the first king of the Babylonian Empire following the abdication of his (1792-1750 BCE Common Era, abbreviated as CE, is a designation for the world's most commonly used year-numbering system. The numbering of years using Common Era notation is identical to the numbering used with Anno Domini notation, 2010 being the current year in both notations and neither using a year zero. Common Era is also known as Christian Era and Current), the Babylonian Empire Babylonia was a state in Lower Mesopotamia , with Babylon as its capital. Babylonia emerged when Hammurabi (fl. ca. 1696 – 1654 BC, short chronology) created an empire out of the territories of the former kingdoms of Sumer and Akkad. The Amorites being a Semitic people, Babylonia adopted the written Semitic Akkadian language for official use, used a system of conscription called Ilkum. Under the system those eligible were required to serve in the royal army in time of war.[1] During times of peace they were instead required to provide labour for other activities of the state.[1] In return for this service, those subject to it gained the right to hold land.[1] It is possible that this right was not to hold land per se but specific land supplied by the state.[1]

Various forms of avoiding military service are recorded. While it was outlawed by the Code of Hammurabi The Code of Hammurabi is a well-preserved ancient law code, created ca. 1790 BC (middle chronology) in ancient Babylon. It was enacted by the sixth Babylonian king, Hammurabi. One nearly complete example of the Code survives today, inscribed on a seven foot, four inch tall diorite stele in the Akkadian language in the cuneiform script, the hiring of substitutes appears to have been practiced both before and after the creation of the code.[2] Later records show that Ilkum commitments could become regularly traded.[2] In other places, people simply left their towns to avoid their Ilkum service.[2] Another option was to sell Ilkum lands and the commitments along with them. With the exception of a few exempted classes, this was forbidden by the Code of Hammurabi.[2]

Feudal levies

Under the feudal Feudalism is a decentralized sociopolitical structure in which a weak monarchy attempts to control the lands of the realm through reciprocal agreements with regional leaders. In its most classic sense, feudalism refers to the Medieval European political system composed of a set of reciprocal legal and military obligations among the warrior conditions for holding land in the medieval period, most peasants A peasant is an agricultural worker who subsists by working a small plot of ground. The word is derived from 15th century French païsant meaning one from the pays, or countryside, ultimately from the Latin pagus, or outlying administrative district . The term peasant today is sometimes used in a pejorative sense for impoverished farmers and freemen were liable to provide one man of suitable age per family for military duty when required by either the king or the local lord. Those who refused became outlaws In the common law of England, a "Writ of Outlawry" made the pronouncement Caput gerat lupinum with respect to its subject, using "head" to refer to the entire person (cf. "per capita") and equating that person with a wolf in the eyes of the law: Not only was the subject deprived of all legal rights because the law no. The levies Categories: Surnames | Jewish surnames | Levites raised in this way fought as infantry under local superiors. This was essentially an early form of conscription. Although the exact laws varied greatly depending on the country and the period, generally these levies were only obliged to fight for one to three months. Most were subsistence farmers, and it was in every lord's interest to send the men home for harvest-time.

Military slavery

The system of military slaves Slavery is a social-economic system under which certain persons known as slaves are deprived of personal freedom and compelled to perform labour or services. The following is a list of known slaves in alphabetical order of first name: was widely used in the Middle East The Middle East is a region that encompasses southwestern Asia and Egypt. In some contexts, the term has recently been expanded in usage to sometimes include Afghanistan and Pakistan, the Caucacus and Central Asia, and North Africa. It's often used as a synonym for Near East, in opposition to Far East. The corresponding adjective is Middle-Eastern, beginning with the Egyptians training Mamluks A mamluk (Arabic: مملوك , مماليك (plural), "owned"; also transliterated mamluq, mamluke, mameluk, mameluke, mamaluke, marmeluke, or marmaduke) was a soldier of slave origin who had converted to Islam. The "mamluk phenomenon," as David Ayalon has called it, was of great political importance and was extraordinarily from the 9th century, to the Turks and Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire or Ottoman State , also known by its contemporaries as the Turkish Empire or Turkey (see the other names of the Ottoman State), was an Islamic empire that lasted from 1299 to November 1, 1922 (as an imperial monarchy) or July 24, 1923 (de jure, as a state). It was succeeded by the Republic of Turkey, which was officially through the 19th century.

In the middle of the 14th century, Ottoman Sultan Murad I Murad I (Serbian: Мурат 1. / Murat I) (Turkish: I. Murat Hüdavendigâr) (March or June 29, 1326, Sogut or Bursa – June 15, 1389, Battle of Kosovo) (Ottoman Turkish: مراد اول) was the ruler of the Ottoman Empire, Sultan of Rûm, from 1362 to 1389. He was the son of Orhan I and the Valide Sultan Nilüfer Hatun (whose name means Water developed personal troops to be loyal to him, with a slave army called the Kapıkulu. The new force was built by kidnapping Christian children, especially from the far areas of his empire, in a system known as the devşirme Devşirme or devshirme was the practice by which the Ottoman Empire conscripted boys from Christian families, who were taken from their families by force, converted to Islam and trained as Janissary soldiers. The practice was motivated by the desire to create an elite class of warriors loyal only to the Sultan, rather than to individual Ottoman (translated "blood tax" or "child collection"). The captive children were persuaded to convert to Islam Islam (Arabic: الإسلام‎ al-’islām, pronounced [ʔislæːm] [note 1]) is the religion articulated by the Qur’an, a religious book considered by its adherents to be the verbatim word of the single incomparable God (Arabic: الله‎, Allāh), and by the Prophet of Islam Muhammad's demonstrations and real-life examples (called the. The Sultans had the young boys trained over several years. Those who showed special promise in fighting skills were trained in advanced warrior skills, put into the sultan's personal service, and turned into the Janissaries The Janissaries comprised infantry units that formed the Ottoman sultan's household troops and bodyguards. The force was created by the Sultan Murad I from abducted Christian sons from conquered Christian countries in the 14th century and was abolished by Sultan Mahmud II in 1826 with the Auspicious Incident, the elite branch of the Kapıkulu. This soldier class became a decisive factor in the Ottoman invasions of Europe The wars of the Ottoman Empire in Europe are also sometimes referred to as the Ottoman Wars or as Turkish Wars, particularly in older, European texts.[citation needed]

Most of the military commanders of the Ottoman forces, imperial administrators and upper-level officials of the Ottoman Empire, such as Pargalı İbrahim Pasha Pargalı İbrahim Pasha — also called Frenk İbrahim Pasha — an Albanian was the first Grand Vizier appointed by Suleiman the Magnificent of the Ottoman Empire (r. 1520 to 1566). In 1523, he replaced Piri Mehmed Pasha, who had been appointed in 1518 by Süleyman I's father, the preceding sultan Selim I, and remained in office for 13 years. He and Sokollu Mehmet Paşa, were recruited in this way.[3] By 1609 the Sultan's Kapıkulu forces increased to about 100,000.[4] As European Christian states increased in military power, they were able to stem and eventually repel most of the Islamic riazzas (invasions) into the European heartland.

The Sultan began turning to the Barbary Pirates The Barbary Corsairs, sometimes called Ottoman Corsairs or Barbary Pirates, were Muslim pirates and privateers who operated from North Africa from the time of the Crusades until the early 19th century. Based in North African ports such as Tunis, Tripoli, Algiers, Salé, and other ports in Morocco, they sailed mainly along the stretch of northern. Their attacks on ships off the coast of Africa or in the Mediterranean , and capture of people for ransom or sale provided some captives for the Sultan's system. Eventually the Sultan turned to foreign volunteers from the warrior clans of Circassians Circassians is a term derived from the Caucasian Avar language. "Cherkess" means in Avar language "tall , handsome man". Generically it refers to the Caucasian peoples of northwest Caucasus. It might be understood in a narrower sense (including Adyghe/Cherkes , or in a broader sense (including also Abkhaz, Abazins, and Ubykh, in southern Russia Russia (pronounced /ˈrʌʃə/ ; Russian: Россия, tr. Rossiya, pronounced [rɐˈsʲijə] ( listen)), also officially known as the Russian Federation (Russian: Российская Федерация, tr. Rossiyskaya Federatsiya, pronounced [rɐˈsʲijskəjə fʲɪdʲɪˈraʦəjə] ( listen)), is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal to fill his Janissary armies. As a whole the system began to break down. The loyalty of the Jannissaries became increasingly suspect. Mahmud II Mahmud II (20 July 1785 – 1 July 1839) was the 30th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1808 until his death in 1839. He was born at Topkapi Palace, Constantinople, the son of Sultan Abdul Hamid I. His reign is notable mostly for the extensive legal and military reforms he instituted. His mother was Valide Sultan Naksh-i-Dil Haseki Sultan (there forcibly disbanded the Janissary corps in 1826.[5][6]

Similar to the Janissaries in origin and means of development were the Mamluks of Egypt in the Middle Ages The Middle Ages is a period of European history covering roughly a millennium from the 5th century through to the 16th century. It is commonly dated from the fall of the Western Roman Empire, and contrasted with a later Early Modern Period; the time during which the rise of humanism in the Italian Renaissance and the Reformation unfolded, are. The Mamluks A mamluk (Arabic: مملوك , مماليك (plural), "owned"; also transliterated mamluq, mameluk, mameluke, mamaluke, marmeluke, or mamluke) was a soldier who converted to Islam and served the Muslim Arab caliphs from the 9th to the 16th centuries. They were of mixed ancestry but mainly Kipchak Turks. While Mamluks were purchased, were iusually captive non-Muslim Iranian and Turkish children who had been kidnapped or bought as slaves from the Barbary coasts. The Egyptians assimilated and trained the boys and young men to become Islamic soldiers who served the Muslim caliphs The Caliph is the head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the leader of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah. It is a transcribed version of the Arabic word خليفة Khalīfah (help·info) which means "successor" or "representative". The early leaders of the Muslim nation following Muhammad's ( and the Ayyubid The Ayyubids were a Sunni Muslim dynasty of Kurdish origin centered in Cairo and Damascus that ruled much of the Middle East during the 12th and 13th centuries CE. The Ayyubid family, under the brothers Ayyub and Shirkuh, originally served as soldiers for the Zengids until they gradually gained independence from them under Saladin, Ayyub's son. In sultans during the Middle Ages The Middle Ages is a period of European history covering roughly a millennium from the 5th century through to the 16th century. It is commonly dated from the fall of the Western Roman Empire, and contrasted with a later Early Modern Period; the time during which the rise of humanism in the Italian Renaissance and the Reformation unfolded, are. The first mamluks served the Abbasid The Abbasid Caliphate was the third of the Islamic Caliphates of the Islamic Empire. It was ruled by the Abbasid dynasty of caliphs, who built their capital in Baghdad after overthrowing the Umayyad caliphs from all but Al Andalus caliphs in 9th century Baghdad Baghdad , meaning "Given by God (in Persian)", is the capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is coterminous. Having a municipal population estimated between 5 and 7.5 million, it is the largest city in Iraq and one of the two largest in the Arab World (including Cairo). Over time they became a powerful military caste A caste is a combined social system of occupation, endogamy, culture, social class, and political power. Caste should not be confused with class, in that members of a caste are deemed to be alike in function or culture, whereas not all members of a defined class may be so alike. Although Indian society is often now associated with the word ". On more than one occasion, they seized power, for example, ruling Egypt Egypt (pronounced /ˈiːdʒɪpt/ ; Arabic: مصر‎ Miṣr, pronounced [misˤɾ] ( listen); Egyptian Arabic: Maṣr [ˈmɑsˤɾ]; Coptic: Ⲭⲏⲙⲓ, kīmi; Egyptian: Kemet), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Thereby, Egypt is a from 1250–1517.

From 1250 Egypt Egypt (pronounced /ˈiːdʒɪpt/ ; Arabic: مصر‎ Miṣr, pronounced [misˤɾ] ( listen); Egyptian Arabic: Maṣr [ˈmɑsˤɾ]; Coptic: Ⲭⲏⲙⲓ, kīmi; Egyptian: Kemet), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Thereby, Egypt is a had been ruled by the Bahri dynasty The Bahri dynasty or Bahriyya Mamluks was a Mamluk dynasty of mostly Kipchak Turkic origin that ruled Egypt from 1250 to 1382 when they were succeeded by the Burji dynasty, another group of Mamluks. Their name means 'of the sea', referring to the location of their original residence on Al-Rodah Island in the Nile (Bahr al-Nil) in Cairo at the of Kipchak Kipchaks (Turkic: Kypchak,Kıpçak) were an ancient Turkic people who originally formed part of the group of Kimäks in Siberia along the middle reaches of Irtysh or along the Ob. Around the middle of the 11th century, they split off from the bulk of the Kimaks and departed in the direction of Europe. The western Kipchaks were known as Cumans ( origin. Slaves from the Caucasus This article deals with the various ethnic groups inhabiting the Caucasus region. There are more than 50 ethnic groups living in the region served in the army and formed an elite corp of troops. They eventually revolted in Egypt to form the Burgi dynasty The Burji dynasty المماليك البرجية ruled Egypt from 1382 until 1517. It proved especially turbulent, with short-lived sultans. Political power-plays often became important in designating a new sultan. During this time Mamluks fought Timur Lenk and conquered Cyprus. Constant bickering may have contributed to the ability of the. The Mamluks' excellent fighting abilities, massed Islamic armies, and overwhelming numbers succeeded in overcoming the Christian Crusader fortresses in the Holy Land. The Mamluks were the most successful defense against the Mongol Ilkhanate The Ilkhanate, also spelled Il-khanate or Il Khanate , was a Mongol khanate established in Persia in the 13th century, considered a part of the Mongol Empire. The Ilkhanate was based, originally, on Genghis Khan's campaigns in the Khwarezmid Empire in 1219–1224, and founded by Genghis's grandson, Hulagu, in what territories which today comprise of Persia and Iraq from entering Egypt.[7]

On the western coast of Africa, Berber Muslims captured non-Muslims to put to work as laborers. They generally converted the younger people to Islam and many became quite assimilated. In Morocco, the Berber looked south rather than north. The Moroccan Sultan Moulay Ismail Moulay Ismaïl Ibn Sharif (Arabic: مولاي إسماعيل بن الشريف ابن النصر‎) was the second ruler of the Moroccan Alaouite dynasty. Like others of the dynasty, Ismaïl claimed to be a descendant of Muhammad through his grandson Hassan ibn Ali. He is also known in his native country as the "Warrior King.", called "the Bloodthirsty" (1672–1727), employed a corps of 150,000 black slaves, called his Black Guard. He used them to coerce the country into submission.[8]

Invention of modern conscription

The Swedish allotment system of the 17th century predates most conscription policies. The official layout of the system differs from the French and modern ones, but the effect was the same though on a lesser scale[clarification needed].

Modern conscription, the massed military enlistment of national citizens (today recognized in the USA as "the draft"), was devised during the French Revolution, to enable the Republic to defend itself from the attacks of European monarchies. Deputy Jean-Baptiste Jourdan gave its name to the September 5, 1798 Act, whose first article stated: "Any Frenchman is a soldier and owes himself to the defense of the nation." It enabled the creation of the Grande Armée, what Napoleon Bonaparte called "the nation in arms," which successfully battled European professional armies. More than 2.6 million men were inducted into the French military in this way between the years 1800 and 1813.[9]

The defeat of the Prussian Army shocked the Prussian establishment, which had believed it was invincible after the Frederician victories. Scharnhorst advocated adopting the levée en masse, the military conscription used by France. The Krümpersystem was the beginning of short-term compulsory service in Prussia, as opposed to the long-term conscription previously used.[10]

In the Russian Empire, the military service time "owed" by serfs was 25 years at the beginning of the 19th century. In 1834 it was decreased to 20 years. The recruits were to be not younger than 17 and not older than 35.[11] In 1874 Russia introduced universal conscription on the modern pattern was introduced, an innovation only made possible by the abolition of serfdom in 1861. New military law decreed that all male Russian subjects, when they reached the age of 20, were eligible to serve in the military for six years.[12]

The Union Army introduced conscription in the American Civil War. The 1863 Enrollment Act permitted draftees to hire paid substitutes to fight in their place. This, and the bounty system, led to widespread dislike of conscription by the public at large; the New York Draft Riots were one symptom. In addition, draftees were viewed with disdain by volunteer soldiers and their officers. In the end, the draft provided only 6% of the Union Army's manpower. The US did not use conscription again until 1917 in preparation for war in Europe.[13]

Louis Althusser has underlined how Machiavelli was one of the first modern theorists to consider the relationship between conscription and the creation of a nation, or successfully bolstering patriotism. Machiavelli despised the use of mercenaries and professional armies, which at that time were ravaging the divided Italian states.

Sending conscripts to foreign wars that do not directly affect the home nation's security has historically been politically contentious in democracies. For instance, during World War I, bitter disputes broke out in Canada (see Conscription Crisis of 1917), Australia and New Zealand (see Compulsory Military Training) over conscription. Canada also had a political dispute over conscription during World War II (see Conscription Crisis of 1944). Similarly, mass protests against conscription to fight the Vietnam War occurred in the United States and allied countries in the late 1960s. (See also: Conscription Crisis)

Drafting of women

As of 2006[update], countries that were drafting women into military service included China, Eritrea, Israel, Libya, Malaysia, North Korea, Peru, Taiwan, Egypt and Tunisia[14][15]. In the United Kingdom during World War II, beginning in 1941, women were brought into the scope of conscription but, as all women with dependent children were exempt and many women were informally left in occupations such as nursing or teaching, the number conscripted was relatively few.[16]. In the USSR, there was no systematic conscription of women for the armed forces, but the severe disruption of normal life and the high proportion of civilians affected by World War II after the German invasion attracted many volunteers for what was termed "The Great Patriotic War".[17] The United States came close to drafting women into the Nurse Corps in preparation for a planned invasion of Japan.[18][19]

In 1981 in the United States, several men filed lawsuit in the case Rostker v. Goldberg, alleging that the Military Selective Service Act violates the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment by requiring that men only register with the Selective Service System (SSS). The Supreme Court eventually upheld the Act, stating that "the argument for registering women was based on considerations of equity, but Congress was entitled, in the exercise of its constitutional powers, to focus on the question of military need, rather than 'equity.'"[20]

On October 1, 1999 in the Taiwan Area, the Judicial Yuan of the Republic of China in its Interpretation 490 considered that the physical differences between males and females and the derived role differentiation in their respective social functions and lives would not make drafting males only violating the Constitution of the Republic of China.[21] Though women are conscripted in Taiwan, transsexual persons are exempt.[22]

Conscientious objection

Main articles: Conscientious objection, Antimilitarism, and Conscientious objection throughout the world

A conscientious objector is an individual whose personal beliefs are incompatible with military service, or sometimes with any role in the armed forces. In some countries, conscientious objectors have special legal status, which augments their conscription duties. For example, Sweden allows conscientious objectors to choose a service in the "weapons-free" branch, such as an airport fireman, nurse or telecommunications technician. Some may also refuse such service as they feel that they still are a part of the military complex. The reasons for refusing to serve are varied. Some conscientious objectors are so for religious reasons — notably, the members of the historic peace churches are pacifist by doctrine, and Jehovah's Witnesses, while not strictly speaking pacifists, refuse to participate in the armed services on the grounds that they believe Christians should be neutral in worldly conflicts.

Evading the draft

The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk page.
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be and removed. (September 2008)
Main article: Draft dodger

Historically, there has been resistance to conscription in almost every country and situation where it has been imposed.[citation needed] The New York Draft Riots (July 11 to July 16, 1863; known at the time as Draft Week), were violent disturbances in New York City that were the culmination of discontent with new laws passed by Congress to draft men to fight in the ongoing American Civil War. The Central Asian Revolt started in the summer of 1916, when the Russian Empire government ended its exemption of Muslims from military service.

In the USA and some other countries, the Vietnam War saw new levels of opposition to conscription and the Selective Service System. Many people opposed to and facing conscription chose to either apply for classification and assignment to civilian alternative service or noncombatant service within the military as conscientious objectors, or to evade the draft by fleeing to a neutral country. A small proportion, like Muhammad Ali, chose to resist the draft by publicly and politically fighting conscription. Some people resist at the point of registration for the draft. In the USA since 1980, for example, the draft resistance movement has focused on mandatory draft registration. Others resist at the point of induction, when they are ordered to put on a uniform, when they are ordered to carry or use a weapon, or when they are ordered into combat.

In the United States, especially during the Vietnam Era, some used political connections to ensure that they were placed well away from any potential harm, serving in what was termed a Champagne unit. Many would avoid military service altogether through college deferments, by becoming fathers, or serving in various exempt jobs (teaching was one possibility). Others used educational exemptions, became conscientious objectors or pretended to be conscientious objectors, although they might then be drafted for non-combat work, such as serving as a combat medic. It was also possible they could be asked to do similar civilian work, such as being a hospital orderly.

It was, in fact, quite easy for those with some knowledge of the system to avoid being drafted. A simple route, widely publicized, was to get a medical rejection. While a person could claim to have symptoms (or feign homosexuality) if enough physicians sent letters that a person had a problem, he might well be rejected. It often wasn't worth the Army's time to dispute this claim. Such an approach worked best in a larger city where there was no stigma to not serving, and the potential draftee was not known to those reviewing him.

For others, the most common method of avoiding the draft was to cross the border into another country. People who have been "called up" for military service and who attempted to avoid it in some way were known as "draft-dodgers". Particularly during the Vietnam War, US draft-dodgers usually made their way to Canada, Mexico or Sweden.

Many people looked upon draft-dodgers with scorn as being "cowards", but some supported them in their efforts. In the late years of the Vietnam War, objections against it and support for draft-dodgers was much more outspoken, because of the casualties suffered by American troops, and the actual cause and purpose of the war being heavily questioned.

Toward the end of the US draft, an attempt was made to make the system somewhat fairer by turning it into a lottery, with each of the year's calendar dates randomly assigned a number. Men born on lower numbered dates were called up for review. For the reasons given above, this did not make the system any fairer, and the entire system ended in 1973. Today, American men 18-25 are required to register with the government, but there has not been a callup since the Vietnam Era.

There are those who are immune to the draft in certain countries; these people include anyone[citation needed] who works for the government (teachers, police officers, lawmakers, etc), people who work for government contractors, and those who work in jobs essential to the operation of the country (waste management, power plants, etc). In the United Kingdom this is known as a reserved occupation which is deemed necessary to the survival of the nation.

In Israel, the Muslim and Christian Arab minority are exempt from mandatory service, as are permanent residents such as the Druze of the Golan Heights. Ultra-Orthodox Jews may apply for a deferment of draft to study in Yeshiva, but once they are finished studying, they are required to do national or army service. Druze and Circassian Israeli citizens are liable, by agreement with their community leaders. Members of the exempted groups can still volunteer, but very few do, except for the Bedouin where a relatively large number have tended to volunteer.

Countries with and without mandatory military service

See: Military service
Conscription by country — Examples
Country Land area (km2) [23] GDP nominal (US$M)[24] Per capita GDP (US$)[25] Population[26] Government[27] Conscription[28]
Albania 27,398 $10,620 $2,949.57 3,619,778 emerging democracy Yes
Algeria 2,381,740 $90,000 $2,700.01 33,333,216 republic Yes
Angola 1,246,700 $28,610 $2,332.92 12,263,596 republic; multiparty presidential regime Yes
Argentina 2,736,690 $210,000 $5,210.67 40,301,927 republic Legal, not practiced
Australia 7,617,930 $644,700 $31,550.09 20,434,176 federal parliamentary democracy No (abolished by parliament in 1972)[29]
Austria 82,444 $310,100 $37,818.07 8,233,300 federal republic Yes
Bahamas 10,070 $6,586, $21,547.17 307,451 constitutional parliamentary democracy No
Bangladesh 133,910 $72,420 $481.36 153,546,896 parliamentary democracy No
Belgium 30,528 $316,200 $31,400 10,584,534 federal parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarchy No (conscription suspended since 1994)
Belize 22,806 $1,274 $4,327.67 301,270 parliamentary democracy Military service is voluntary
Bhutan 47,000 $1,308 $561.89 682,321 in transition to constitutional monarchy; special treaty relationship with India Yes (selective)
Bolivia 1,084,390 $13,190 $1,446.41 9,247,816 republic Yes (when annual number of volunteers falls short of goal[30])
Bosnia and Herzegovina 51,197 $14,780 $3,246.78 4,590,310 emerging federal democratic republic Yes
Brazil 8,456,510 $967,000 $6,915.40 196,342,592 federal republic Yes
Bulgaria 110,550 $39,610 $5,409.09 7,262,675 parliamentary democracy No (abolished by law on January 1, 2008[31])
Burma 657,740 $13,530 $285.60 47,758,180 military junta No[28]

Officially prohibited, de facto still practiced[32][33][34][35]
China, People's Republic of 9,326,410 $3,251,000 $2,459.43 1,330,044,544 Communist state Yes (selective[28]) (Legalized by law, but have not yet been practiced[citation needed])
Croatia 56,414 $51,360 $11,430.32 4,491,543 presidential/parliamentary democracy No (abolished by law in 2008)[36]
Cuba 110,860 $45,580 $4,000.34 11,423,952 Communist state Yes (both sexes[citation needed])
Denmark 42,394 $311,900 $57,039.71 5,484,723 constitutional monarchy Yes
Djibouti 22,980 $841 $1,694.29 506,221 republic No
El Salvador 20,720 $20,370 $2,931.75 7,066,403 republic Legal, not practiced
Finland 304,473 $245,000 $46,769.47 5,244,749 republic Yes (Alternative service available)
France 640,053[37] $2,560,000 $35,240.62 61,037,510 republic No (suspended in 2001)[38]
Gambia, The 10,000 $653 $386.77 1,735,464 republic No
Germany 349,223 $3,322,000 $40,315.05 82,369,552 federal republic Yes (Alternative service available[39])
Greece 130,800 $314,600 $29,384.60 10,722,816 parliamentary republic Yes
Grenada 344 $590 $6,557.67 90,343 parliamentary democracy No (no military service)
Hungary 92,340 $138,400 $13,901.01 9,930,915 parliamentary democracy No (Peacetime conscription abolished in 2004[40])
Iran 1,636,000 $193,500 $2,958.83 68,251,090 theocratic republic Yes
India 2,973,190 $1,099,000 $972.68 1,147,995,904 federal republic No
Indonesia 1,826,440 $432 $3,980 237,512,352 republic selective
Israel 20,330 $161,900 $25,191.86 7,112,359 parliamentary democracy Yes
Jamaica 10,831 $11,210 $4,032.18 2,804,332 constitutional parliamentary democracy No
Japan 374,744 $4,384,000 $34,402.26 127,288,416 constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary government No
Jordan 91,971 $16,010 $2,644.89 6,198,677 constitutional monarchy Uncertain[41]
Korea, North 120,410 $40,000[42] $1,800[42] 23,479,088[42] Communist state one-man dictatorship[42] Yes[43]
Korea, South 98,190 $957,100 $19,514.81 48,379,392 republic Yes
Kuwait 17,820 $60,720 $24,234.11 2,505,559 constitutional emirate Yes
Lebanon 10,230 $24,640 $6,276.90 3,971,941 republic No (abolished in 2007)[44]
Libya 1,759,540 $57,060 $9,451.85 6,173,579 jamahiriya (a state of the masses) in theory, governed by the populace through local councils; in practice, an authoritarian state Yes
Lithuania 65,300 $38,350 $10,725.96 3,565,205 parliamentary democracy No (Suspended on September 15, 2008)[45]
Luxembourg 2,586 $50,160 $104,451.69 486,006 constitutional monarchy No
Macedonia, Republic of 24,856 $7,497 $3,646.55 2,061,315 parliamentary democracy No (abolished in 2006)[46]
Malaysia 328,550 $186,500 $7,513.71 25,274,132 constitutional elective monarchy No
Maldives 300 $1,049 $2,842.58 385,925 republic No
Malta 316 $7,419 $18,460.73 403,532 republic No
Mexico 1,972,550 $893,400 $8,218.88 109,955,400 republic Yes
Moldova 33,371 $4,227 $978.36 4,324,450 republic Yes
Netherlands 33,883 $768,700 $46,389.35 16,645,313 constitutional monarchy Legal, suspended since 1997 [47] See also: Conscription in the Netherlands
New Zealand 268,021 $128,100 $31,124.18 4,173,460 parliamentary democracy No
Pakistan 778,720 $143,800 $872.88 172,800,048 federal republic No
Philippines 298,170 $144,100 $2,582.17 96,061,680 republic Legal[48]. Practiced selectively and only rarely[49]
Poland 304,459 $420,300 $10,911.71 38,500,696 republic No[50]
Qatar 11,437 $67,760 $74,688.97 824,789 emirate No
Romania 230,340 $166,000 $7,451.95 22,246,862 republic No (ended in 2007)[51]
Russia 16,995,800 $1,290,000 $9,124.49 140,702,096 federation Yes (Alternative service available)
Rwanda 24,948 $3,320 $335.10 10,186,063 republic; presidential, multiparty system No
Saudi Arabia 376,000 $276,900 $13,622.68 28,146,656 monarchy No
Seychelles 455 $710 $8,669.64 82,247 republic Yes
Singapore 682.7 $161,300 $35,427.12 4,608,167 parliamentary republic Yes
Slovenia 20,151 $46,080 $22,933.99 2,007,711 parliamentary republic No[52]
South Africa 1,219,912 $282,600 $6,423.04 48,782,756 republic No
Spain 499,542 $1,439,000 $35,576.37 40,491,052 parliamentary monarchy No
Syria 184,050 $37,760 $1,954.98 19,747,586 republic under an authoritarian military-dominated regime Yes
Swaziland 17,203 $2,936 $2,591.20 1,128,814 monarchy No
Switzerland 39,770 $423,900 $56,111.06 7,581,520 formally a confederation but similar in structure to a federal republic Yes
Taiwan[53] (Republic of China) 32,260 $383,300 $16,768.11 22,920,946 multiparty democracy Yes (alternative service available[54])

An all-volunteer force is planned by the end of 2014, but conscription will remain in practice thereafter.[55]
Thailand 511,770 $245,700 $3,776.0 65,493,296 constitutional monarchy Yes
Tonga 718 $219 $1,873.06 119,009 constitutional monarchy No
Trinidad and Tobago 5,128 $20,700 $19,590.99 1,047,366 parliamentary democracy No
Turkey 770,760 $663,400 $9,322.83 71,892,808 republican parliamentary democracy Yes
Venezuela 882,050 $236,400 $9,084.09 26,414,816 federal republic Yes[56][57]
United Kingdom 241,590 $2,773,000, $45,626.38 60,943,912 constitutional monarchy No (except Bermuda Regiment )
United States 9,161,923 $13,840,000 $45,958.70 303,824,640 Constitution-based federal republic No[58] Registration remains required.
Vanuatu 12,200 $455 $2,146.52 215,446 parliamentary republic No

Arguments against conscription

Slavery

Some groups, such as libertarians, say that the draft constitutes slavery, since it involves the State taking ownership of the subject's life and labor.[59]

Sexism

See also: Equality before the law

Traditionally conscription has been limited to the male population, as males have been warriors. Women and handicapped males have been exempted from conscription. Many societies have traditionally considered military service as a test of manhood and a rite of passage from boyhood into manhood.[60][61] Pacifist feminists oppose conscription of women as well as men, arguing that it would have women become their own enemy by taking part in a patriarchal oppressive construct of the military. Israel is one country that does draft women, with exceptions for marriage and pregnancy reasons.

Economics

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be and removed. (December 2006)

It can be argued that in a cost-to-benefit ratio, conscription during peace time is not worthwhile.[62] Months or years of service amongst the most fit and capable subtracts from the productivity of the economy; add to this the cost of training them, and in some countries paying them. Compared to these extensive costs, some would argue there is very little benefit; if there ever was a war then conscription and basic training could be completed quickly, and in any case there is little threat of a war in most countries with conscription. In the United States, every male resident must register with the Selective Service System on his 18th birthday, so he is available for a draft.

The cost of conscription can be related to the parable of the broken window. Military service can be related to any other work, such as that of policemen. The costs of work do not disappear anywhere even if no salary is paid. The work effort of the conscripts is effectively wasted; unwilling work force is extremely inefficient and the conscripts also lose their the costs of all-volunteer paid force. The impact is especially severe in wartime, when civilian professionals are forced to fight as amateur soldiers. Not only is the work effort of the conscripts wasted and productivity is lost, but professionally-skilled conscripts are also difficult to replace in the civilian work force. Every soldier conscripted in the army is taken away from his civilian work, and away from contributing to the economy which funds the military. This is not a problem in an agrarian or pre-industrialized state where the level of education is universally low, and where a worker is easily replaced by another. However, this proves extremely problematic in a post-industrial society where educational levels are high and where the work force is highly sophisticated and a replacement for a conscripted specialist is difficult to find. Even direr economic consequences result if the professional conscripted as an amateur soldier is killed or maimed for life; his work effort and productivity is irrevocably lost.[63]

Arguments for conscription

Political and moral motives

Further information: Social contract, Social solidarity, Means of protection, and Active citizenship

Jean Jacques Rousseau argued vehemently against professional armies, feeling it was the right and privilege of every citizen to participate to the defense of the whole society and a mark of moral decline to leave this business to professionals. He based this view on the development of the Roman republic, which came to an end at the same time as the Roman army changed from a conscript to professional force.[64] Similarly, Aristotle linked the division of armed service among the populace intimately with the political order of the state.[65] Niccolò Machiavelli argued strongly for conscription, seeing the professional armies as the cause of the failure of societal unity in Italy.

Some ideologies and cultures, and those based on collectivism or statism, such as Fascism, value the society and common good above the life of an individual. Those ideologies and world-views justify the state to force its members to protect itself and risk their lives for the common good. In states based on society-centered ideologies, world-views and religions, such as in all Communist countries, conscription is seen as the natural way of raising the army.[citation needed] Other proponents such as the late William James consider both mandatory military and national service as ways of instilling maturity in young adults.[66]

Economic & resource efficiency

Further information: Industrial warfare, Total war, and War effort

In a very large war, (such as World War II) raising a large enough volunteer military would require dramatic increases in taxes or budget deficits.[citation needed] In such cases conscription can have lower negative impact than the impact of these higher taxes and possibly be more equitable (higher taxes would penalize those out of service much more than those in service).[citation needed]

It is estimated by the British military that in a professional military, one company deployed for active duty in peacekeeping corresponds to three inactive companies at home. Salaries for each are paid from the military budget. In contrast, volunteers from a trained reserve are in their civilian jobs when they are not deployed.[67]

Related concepts

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Conscription

References

  1. ^ a b c d Postgate, J.N. (1992). Early Mesopotamia Society and Economy at the Dawn of History. Routledge. p. 242. ISBN 0415110327.
  2. ^ a b c d Postgate, J.N. (1992). Early Mesopotamia Society and Economy at the Dawn of History. Routledge. p. 243. ISBN 0415110327.
  3. ^ Bernard Lewis. Race and Slavery in the Middle East, Chapter readings for class at Fordham University
  4. ^ "In the Service of the State and Military Class"
  5. ^ Janissary corps, or Janizary, or Yeniçeri (Turkish military), Encyclopædia Britannica
  6. ^ Janissaries
  7. ^ The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline), Sunnah Online
  8. ^ Lewis. Race and Slavery in the Middle East, Oxford Univ Press, 1994.
  9. ^ "Conscription". Archived from the original on 2009-10-31. http://www.webcitation.org/5kwRJ8b4l.
  10. ^ Dierk Walter. Preussische Heeresreformen 1807–1870: Militärische Innovation und der Mythos der "Roonschen Reform". 2003, in Citino, p. 130
  11. ^ Military service in Russia Empire
  12. ^ Conscription and Resistance: The Historical Context (archived from the original on 2008-06-03)
  13. ^ Brig. Gen. John S. Brown (August 1, 2007), The Draft, AUSA: Army Magazine, http://www.ausa.org/webpub/DeptArmyMagazine.nsf/byid/TWAH-759L7H?OpenDocument&Print=1, retrieved 2007-01-15
  14. ^ CBC News Indepth: International military
  15. ^ The Economic Costs and the Political Allure of Conscription (see footnote 3)
  16. ^ Roger Broad (2006), Conscription in Britain, 1939–1964: the militarisation of a generation, Taylor & Francis, p. 244, ISBN 9780714657011, http://books.google.com/books?id=NWAzKA6ihUEC. ^ Conscription into military service, Peace Pledge Union, http://www.ppu.org.uk/learn/infodocs/st_conscription_l.html.
  17. ^ Jack Cassin-Scott; Angus McBride (1980), Women at war, 1939-45, Osprey Publishing, pp. 33-34, ISBN 9780850453492, http://books.google.com/books?id=gPUtcFooPNoC.
  18. ^ Draft Women?, Time magazine, January 15, 1945, http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,775362,00.html, retrieved 2008-08-12
  19. ^ The women's draft. An analysis of the controversy over the nurses' Selective Service Bill of 1945., PubMed, PMID: 4580476, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4580476, retrieved 2008-08-12
  20. ^ Rostker v. Goldberg, Cornell Law School, retrieved 26 December 2006.
  21. ^ Judicial Yuan Interpretation 490 translated by Jiunn-rong Yeh
  22. ^ (Chinese)Attachment of the standard of the class of physical condition of a draftee, Conscription Agency, Ministry of the Interior
  23. ^ Nationmaster: Land area. SOURCE: All CIA World Factbooks 18 December 2003 to 18 December 2008.
  24. ^ Nationmaster: GDP. SOURCE: All CIA World Factbooks 18 December 2003 to 18 December 2008
  25. ^ Nationmaster: Per capita GDP. SOURCE: All CIA World Factbooks 18 December 2003 to 18 December 2008.
  26. ^ Nationmaster: Population. SOURCE: World Development Indicators database and CIA World Factbooks.
  27. ^ Nationmaster: Government type. SOURCE: All CIA World Factbooks 18 December 2003 to 18 December 2008.
  28. ^ a b c Nationmaster: Conscription. SOURCE: Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Geneva, Switzerland, 1997. Data collected from the nations concerned, or as otherwise indicated.
  29. ^ Conscription was abolished by law in 1973. But the Defence Act 1903 as amended retained a provision that it could be reintroduced by proclamation of the Governor-General. Potentially all Australian residents between the ages of 18 and 60 could be called up in this way. However, the Defence Legislation Amendment Act 1992 further provided that any such proclamation is of no effect until it is approved by both Houses of Parliament. Though actual legislation is not required, the effect of this provision is to make the introduction of conscription impossible without the approval of both the Senate and the House of Representatives, Gary Brown (October 12, 1999). "Current Issues Brief 7 1999–2000 — Military Conscription: Issues for Australia". Parliamentary library; Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade Group. http://www.aph.gov.au/library/pubs/cib/1999-2000/2000cib07.htm. Retrieved 2007-08-10.
  30. ^ South America > Bolivia > Military, nationmaster.com, http://www.nationmaster.com/country/bl-bolivia/mil-military
  31. ^ Country report and updates: Bulgaria22 Oct 2008, War Resisters' International, 22 Octobar 2008, http://www.wri-irg.org/programmes/world_survey/country_report/en/Bulgaria
  32. ^ Burma: World's Highest Number of Child Soldiers, Human rights Watch, October 15, 2002, http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2002/10/15/burma-worlds-highest-number-child-soldiers
  33. ^ Six Youths Conscripted into Burmese Army, Narinjara News, August 4, 2009, http://www.bnionline.net/news/narinjara/6791-six-youths-conscripted-into-burmese-army.html
  34. ^ Arakanese Youth Arrested and Conscripted by Burmese Army, War Resisters' International, June 19, 2009, http://www.wri-irg.org/node/8111
  35. ^ Six Youths Conscripted into Burmese Army, Narinjara, August 4, 2009, http://www.narinjara.com/details.asp?id=2293
  36. ^ Croatia to abolish conscription military service sooner, Southeast European Times, May 10, 2007, http://www.setimes.com/cocoon/setimes/xhtml/en_GB/newsbriefs/setimes/newsbriefs/2007/10/05/nb-07, retrieved 2008-05-30
  37. ^ Includes the overseas regions of French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, and Reunion. France, CIA World Factbook, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/fr.html, retrieved 2008-04-09
  38. ^ Country report and updates: France, War Resisters' International, October 23, 2008.
  39. ^ §§ 14 ff. ZDG
  40. ^ Country report and updates: Hungary, War Resisters' International, October 23, 2008, http://www.wri-irg.org/programmes/world_survey/country_report/en/Hungary
  41. ^ Data from the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Geneva, Switzerland, 1997 indicates that Conscript Service was suspended indefinitely in 1992 and all members of the armed forces are regular volunteers. The CIA World Factbook entry for Jordan indicates based on 2004 data that conscription at age 18 was suspended in 1999, although all males under age 37 are required to register. The Child Soldiers Global Report 2008 indicates, citing "Mustafa al-Riyalat, Representatives agree flag and reserve la, ad-Dustour, April 2007", that compulsory Military Service Act No. 23 of 1986 put the minimum age limit at 18 and that this would be retained in the 2007 amendments.
  42. ^ a b c d "Korea, North". CIA World Factbook. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/kn.html. Retrieved 2007-08-12. (2008 est.)
  43. ^ "North Korea, Military Conscription and Terms of Service". Based on the Country Studies Series by Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress. http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-9627.html. Retrieved 2007-08-12. .
  44. ^ Lebanon, CIA World Factbook, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/le.html, retrieved 2008-05-30
  45. ^ Lithuania: conscription suspended, War Resisters' International
  46. ^ Macedonia: Conscription abolished, War Resisters' International, 1 Jun 2006, http://www.wri-irg.org/node/916
  47. ^ Conscription still exists, but the compulsory attendance was held in abeyance per January 1, 1997 (effective per August 22, 1996), (unknown) (October 12, 1999). "Afschaffing dienstplicht". Tweede Kamer (Dutch House of Representatives) and the Koninklijke Bibliotheek (Royal Dutch Library). http://www.statengeneraaldigitaal.nl/thema_dienstplicht.html. Retrieved 2009-07-27.
  48. ^ Article II Section 4 of The Philippine Constitution reads, "The prime duty of the Government is to serve and protect the people. The Government may call upon the people to defend the State and, in the fulfillment thereof, all citizens may be required, under conditions provided by law, to render personal, military or civil service."
  49. ^ Country report and updates: Philippines, War Resisters' international, April 14, 1998, http://www.wri-irg.org/programmes/world_survey/country_report/en/Philippines§ military service
  50. ^ "Poland's defence minister, Bogdan Klich, said the country will move towards a professional army and that from January, only volunteers will join the armed forces.", Matthew Day (5 August 2008), Poland ends army conscription, telegraph.co.uk, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/poland/2505447/Poland-ends-army-conscription.html, retrieved 2009-02-11
  51. ^ Background Note: Romania, Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs, US Department ofState, April 2008, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35722.htm, retrieved 2008-05-30
  52. ^ Changing the Way Slovenia Sees the Armed Forces, slonews, November 18, 2003, http://slonews.sta.si/index.php?id=1542&s=61, retrieved 2009-10-13
  53. ^ "Taiwan". CIA World Factbook. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/tw.html. Retrieved 2007-12-09. (estimates based on 2006 data)
  54. ^ Substitute Service Center, Department Of Compulsory Military Service, Taipei City Government, http://english.taipei.gov.tw/docms/index.jsp?categid=2073&recordid=1347, retrieved July 25, 2008
  55. ^ Jimmy Chuang (March 10, 2009), Professional military by 2014: MND, Taipei times, http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2009/03/10/2003438077 .
  56. ^ CONSTITUTION OF THE BOLIVARIAN R E P U B L I C OF VENEZUELA. analitica.com. December 20, 1999 (Promulgation date). http://www.analitica.com/bitblioteca/venezuela/constitucion_ingles.pdf. Retrieved 2009-11-01. (Articles 134, 135).
  57. ^ Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada (18 December 2003), Venezuela: Military service, including length of service, existence of alternative forms of service and penalties imposed on those who refuse to serve, U.N. Refugee Agency, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country,,IRBC,,VEN,4562d94e2,403dd226c,0.html, retrieved 2009-11-01
  58. ^ The United States abandoned the draft in 1973 under President Richard Nixon, ended the Selective Service registration requirement in 1975 under President Gerald Ford, and then re-instated the Selective Service registration requirement in 1980 under President Jimmy Carter. Today the U.S. Selective Service System remains as a contingency, should a military draft be re-introduced. For more information see the U.S. Selective Service System website.
  59. ^ U.S. Representative Ron Paul Conscription Is Slavery, antiwar.com, January 14, 2003.
  60. ^ Ben Shephard (2003), A War of Nerves: Soldiers and Psychiatrists in the Twentieth Century, Harvard University Press, p. 18, ISBN 9780674011199, http://books.google.com.ph/books?id=We1HZDUTpdEC
  61. ^ Carol R. Ember; Melvin Ember (2003), Encyclopedia of sex and gender: men and women in the world's cultures, Volume 2, Springer, pp. 108-109, ISBN 9780306477706, http://books.google.com.ph/books?id=oGasFR3USxYC .
  62. ^ Henderson, David R. "The Role of Economists in Ending the Draft" (August 2005).
  63. ^ Milton Friedman (1967). "Why Not a Volunteer Army?". New Individualist Review. http://oll.libertyfund.org/?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=2136&chapter=195469&layout=html&Itemid=27#c_NIR_1360-016_footnote_nt1046. Retrieved 9 11 2008.
  64. ^ Rousseau, J-J. Social Contract. Chapter "The Roman Comitia"
  65. ^ Aristotle, Politics, Book 6 Chapter VII and Book 4 Chapter XIII.
  66. ^ The Moral Equivalent of War - William James, 1906
  67. ^ Gustav Hägglund (2006) (in Finnish), Leijona ja kyyhky, Otava, ISBN 9511211617

Further reading

External links

This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. Please improve this article by removing excessive and inappropriate external links or by converting links into references. (June 2009)
Look up conscription in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Categories: Conscription | Military | Political theories

<<Table of Contents | Show All>>

 

The above information uses material from Wikipedia and is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License.
Some facts may not have been fully verified for accuracy. [Disclaimers]
This page was last archived by our server on Thu Mar 11 14:20:46 2010. [ refresh local cache ]
Displaying this page or its contents does not use any Wikimedia Foundation's resources.
The owners of this site proudly support the Wikimedia Foundation.

[Hide]▼
[Hide]▲