Conscription Facts (United States) @ Involuntarily.org

Conscription (also known as "The Draft", the "Call-up" or "National service") is a general term for involuntary labor demanded by an established authority. It is most often used in the specific sense of government policies that require citizens to serve in the armed forces A military is an organization authorized by its nation to use force, usually including use of weapons, in defending its country by combating actual or perceived threats. As an adjective the term "military" is also used to refer to any property or aspect of a military. Militaries often function as societies within societies, by having. It is known by various names — for example, the most recent conscription program in the United States The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its forty-eight contiguous states and Washington, D.C., the capital district, lie between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the was known colloquially as "the draft Conscription in the United States has been employed several times, usually during war but also during the nominal peace of the Cold War. The United States discontinued the draft in 1973, moving to an all-volunteer military force, thus there is currently no mandatory conscription". Many nations do not maintain conscription forces, instead relying on a volunteer or professional military most of the time, although many of these countries still reserve the possibility of conscription for wartime and during times of crises.

Referring to compulsory service in the armed forces, the term "conscription" has two main meanings:

compulsory service, usually of young men of a given age, e.g., 17 – 18, for a set period of time, commonly one-to-two years. In the United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is a sovereign state located off the northwestern coast of continental Europe. It is an island country, spanning an archipelago including Great Britain, the northeastern part of Ireland, and many small islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the UK with a land border, sharing it with and Singapore Singapore , officially the Republic of Singapore, is an island city-state located at the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, lying 137 kilometres (85 mi) north of the equator, south of the Malaysian state of Johor and north of Indonesia's Riau Islands. At 710.2 km2 (274.2 sq mi), Singapore, a microstate and the smallest nation in Southeast Asia, this was commonly known as "national service"; in New Zealand New Zealand is an island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses , and numerous smaller islands, most notably Stewart Island/Rakiura and the Chatham Islands. The indigenous Māori named New Zealand Aotearoa, commonly translated as The Land of the Long White Cloud. The Realm of New Zealand also includes the Cook, at first compulsory military training There were increasing criticisms of CMT voiced in Parliament, but this declined upon the outbreak of World War I in 1914, provided sufficient justification for CMT. In mid-war, conscription was introduced by the Military Services Bill . CMT was abolished again in 1932 due to economic reasons and later national service National service is a common name for mandatory or voluntary government service programs . (Compulsory military service is more often known as conscription.) National service was common in the 20th century, and many young people spent one or more years in such programs. Compulsory military service typically requires all citizens, or all male; in Norway Norway (pronounced /ˈnɔɹweɪ/ ; Norwegian: Norge (Bokmål) or Noreg (Nynorsk)), officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a country in Northern Europe occupying the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula, as well as Jan Mayen and the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard under the Spitsbergen Treaty. The majority of the country shares a border to, Safeguard Duty/1st time service.
compulsory service, for an indefinite period of time, in the context of a widespread mobilisation Mobilization is the act of assembling and making both troops and supplies ready for war. The word mobilization was first used, in a military context, in order to describe the preparation of the Prussian army during the 1850s and 1860s. Mobilization theories and techniques have continuously changed since then. Notably, before World War I and World of forces for fighting war, including on the home territory, usually imposed on men in a much wider age group (e.g., 18 – 55). (In the United Kingdom this was commonly known as "call-up").

The term "conscription" refers only to the mandatory service; thus, those undergoing conscription are known as "conscripts" or "selectee" in the United States (from the Selective Service System The Selective Service System is the means by which the United States maintains information on those potentially subject to military conscription. Almost all males between the ages of 18 to 25 are required by law to register; as of the end of 2008, the names and addresses of over 14 million men are on file or the Selective Service Initiative The Universal National Service Act is the name of at least three bills proposed in the United States Congress . The Universal National Service Act of 2007 is primarily sponsored by Congressman Charles Rangel of New York. Advocates for National Service include Senator Chris Dodd, and Time magazine Editor Rick Stengel announced in 2004).

In the U.S. The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its forty-eight contiguous states and Washington, D.C., the capital district, lie between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the the term "enlisted" is often used to refer only to those who have volunteered for service in roles other than as commissioned officers An officer is a member of an armed force who holds a position of authority. Commissioned officers derive authority directly from a sovereign power and, as such, hold a commission charging them with the duties and responsibilities of a specific office or position. Commissioned officers are typically the only persons, in a military environment, able.

No armed forces No conscription Plan to abolish conscription within 3 years Conscription No information

History

Feudal levies

Under the system of feudalism Feudalism, in its most classic sense, refers to the Medieval European political system composed of a set of reciprocal legal and military obligations among the warrior nobility, revolving around the three key concepts of lords, vassals, and fiefs. Although derived from the Latin word feodum , then in use, the term feudalism and the system it in the medieval period, most peasants A peasant is an agricultural worker who subsists by working a small plot of ground. The word is derived from 15th century French païsant meaning one from the pays, or countryside, ultimately from the Latin pagus, or outlying administrative district . The term peasant today is sometimes used in a pejorative sense for impoverished farmers and freemen were expected to provide one man of suitable age per family for military duty when requested by either the king or the local lord. The men sequestered in this way were called levies and fought as infantry. This was essentially an early form of conscription, and those that refused became outlaws Though the judgment of outlawry is now obsolete , romanticised outlaws became stock characters in several fictional settings. This was particularly so in the United States, where outlaws were popular subjects of newspaper coverage and stories in the 19th century, and 20th century fiction and Western movies. Thus, "outlaw" is still. Although the exact laws varied greatly depending on the country and the period, generally these levies were only obliged to fight for one to three months.

Military slavery

The system of military slaves Slavery is a social-economic system under which certain persons — known as slaves — are deprived of personal freedom and compelled to perform labour or services. The following is a list of known slaves: was widely used by Turks in the Middle East The Middle East is a region that spans southwestern Asia and northeastern Africa. It has no clear boundaries, often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. The term "Middle East" was popularized around 1900 in the United Kingdom. The corresponding adjective to Middle East is Middle-Eastern and the derived noun is from the 9th until the 19th century.

In the middle of the 14th century, Ottoman The Ottoman Empire or Ottoman State , also known by its contemporaries as the Turkish Empire or Turkey (see the other names of the Ottoman State), was an empire that lasted from 1299 to November 1, 1922 (as an imperial monarchy) or July 24, 1923 (de jure, as a state.) It was succeeded by the Republic of Turkey, which was officially proclaimed on Sultan Murad I Murad I (Turkish: I. Murat Hüdavendigâr) (March or June 29, 1326, Sogut or Bursa – June 28, 1389, Battle of Kosovo) (Ottoman Turkish: مراد الأول) was the ruler of the Ottoman Empire, Sultan of Rûm, from 1359 to 1389. He was the son of Orhan I and the Valide Sultan Nilüfer Hatun (whose name means Water lily in Turkish), daughter of built his own personal slave army called the Kapıkulu. The new force was built by kidnapping large numbers of children, especially from Europeans during large raids or as a form of tribute known as the devşirme (translated "blood tax" or "child collection"). The captive children, far from their families and cultures, were persuaded to convert to Islam Islam (Arabic: الإسلام ; al-’islām‎; pronounced [ʔislæːm][note 1]) is a monotheistic, Abrahamic religion originating with the teachings of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, a 7th century Arab religious and political figure. The word Islam means "submission", or the total surrender of oneself to God (Arabic: الله‎, Allāh). Believing in the superior native talent of European — especially northern European — nationalities, the Sultans put the young boys, into various levels of stress, endurance, and fighting levels over several years. Those that showed special promise in fighting skills were trained in advanced and arcane warrior skills, put into the sultan's personal service, and turned into the ultimate fighting weapons known as the Janissaries, the most famous branch of the Kapıkulu. This soldier class became a decisive factor in the Ottoman invasions of Europe After striking a blow to the weakened Byzantine Empire in 1356 , (see Suleyman Pasha) which provided it a basis for operations in Europe, the Ottoman Empire started its westward expansion into the European continent in the middle of the 14th century. Its first significant opponent was the young Serbian Empire, which was worn down by a series of.^[1]

Most of the military commanders of the Ottoman forces, imperial administrators and de facto rulers of the Ottoman Empire, such as Pargalı İbrahim Pasha Pargalı İbrahim Pasha or Frenk İbrahim Pasha was the first Grand Vizier appointed by Suleiman the Magnificent of the Ottoman Empire . In 1523, he replaced Piri Mehmed Pasha, who had been appointed in 1518 by Süleyman I's father, the preceding sultan Selim I, and remained in office for 13 years, till 1536, during which time he attained a level and Sokollu Mehmet Paşa, were recruited in this way.^[2]^[3] By 1609 the Sultan's Kapıkulu forces increased to about 100,000.^[4] As European Christian states increased in military power, they were able to stem and eventually repel most of the Islamic riazzas into the European heartland. Additionally, the raise in awareness by the common European to their national and religious identity through greater literacy and education also made it increasingly problematic for Turkish indoctrination to work effectively on the kidnapped children. The Sultan increasingly began turning to the Barbary Pirates whose depredations continued upon white travelers, thereby providing a continued supply of captured children for the Sultan's human slave system. Eventually the Sultan had to turn to foreign volunteers from the adept warrior clans of Circassians in southern Russia to fill his Janissary armies. As a whole the system began to break down, and the loyalty of the Jannissaries became increasingly suspect. Mahmud II Mahmud II (20 July 1785 – 1 July 1839) was the 30th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1808 until his death in 1839. He was born at Topkapi Palace, Istanbul, the son of Sultan Abdul Hamid I. His reign is notable mostly for the extensive legal and military reforms he instituted. His mother was Valide Sultan 1808 Naksh-i-Dil Haseki Sultan (there forcibly disbanded Janissary corps in 1826.^[5]^[6]

On the western coast of Africa, Berber Muslims also attempted to put into practice the process of capturing non-Muslims and brainwashing them into fanatical Muslims. In Morocco, the Berber looked south rather than north. The Moroccan Sultan Moulay Ismail "the Bloodthirsty" (1672-1727) raised a corps of 150,000 black slaves, called his Black Guard, who coerced the country into submission.^[8]

Invention of modern conscription

The Swedish allotment system of the 17th century predates most conscription policies. the official layout of the system differs from the French and modern but the effect was the same but on a lesser scale Modern conscription, the massed military enlistment of national citizens (today recognized as "the draft"), was devised during the French Revolution The French Revolution was a period of political and social upheaval and radical change in the history of France, during which the French governmental structure, previously an absolute monarchy with feudal privileges for the aristocracy and Catholic clergy, underwent radical change to forms based on Enlightenment principles of citizenship and, allowing the Republic France ( /ˈfræns/ or /ˈfrɑːns/; French pronunciation: [fʁɑ̃s]), officially the French Republic (French: République française, French pronunciation: [ʁepyblik fʁɑ̃sɛz]), is a country located in Western Europe, with several overseas islands and territories located on other continents. Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean to defend itself from the attacks of European monarchies. Deputy Jean-Baptiste Jourdan Jean-Baptiste Jourdan, 1st Comte Jourdan , was a marshal of France notable for his service during the French Revolutionary War and Napoleonic War gave its name to the September 5, 1798 Act, whose first article stated: "Any Frenchman is a soldier and owes himself to the defense of the nation Patriotism is defined as love of and/or devotion to one's country. The word comes from the Greek patris. However, patriotism has had different meanings over time, and its meaning is highly dependent upon context, geography and philosophy." It enabled the creation of the Grande Armée The Grande Armée first entered the annals of history when, in 1805, Napoleon I renamed the army that he had assembled on the French coast of the English Channel for the proposed invasion of Britain but failed at the Battle of Trafalgar and re-deployed it East to commence the Campaign of 1805 against Austria and Russia, what Napoleon Bonaparte Napoleon Bonaparte later known as Emperor Napoleon I, and previously Napoleone di Buonaparte, was a military and political leader of France whose actions shaped European politics in the early 19th century called "the nation in arms," which successfully battled European professional armies. More than 2.6 million men were inducted into the French military in this way between the years 1800 and 1813.^[9]

The defeat of the disorganized Prussian Army The Prussian Army was the army of the Kingdom of Prussia. It was vital to the development of Brandenburg-Prussia as a European power shocked the Prussian establishment, which had largely felt invincible after the Frederician Frederick II was a King of Prussia (1740–1786) from the Hohenzollern dynasty. In his role as a prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire, he was Frederick IV (Friedrich IV) of Brandenburg. He was in personal union the sovereign prince of the Principality of Neuchâtel. He became known as Frederick the Great (Friedrich der Große) and was nicknamed victories. Scharnhorst Gerhard Johann David von Scharnhorst was a general in Prussian service, Chief of the Prussian General Staff, noted for both his writings, his reforms of the Prussian army, and his leadership during the Napoleonic Wars advocated adopting the levée en masse Levée en masse (literally "Rise in Mass") is defined in Article 4, letter A paragraph 6 of the Third Geneva Convention. It is a French term for mass conscription during the French Revolutionary Wars, particularly for the one from 23 August 1793, the military conscription used by France. Krümpersystem was the beginning of short-term compulsory service in Prussia, as opposed to the long-term conscription previously used.^[10]

In Russian Empire The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia, and the predecessor of the Soviet Union. It was the second largest contiguous empire the world had seen, surpassed only by the Mongol Empire. At one point in 1866, it stretched from eastern Europe, across Asia,, the service time was 25 years at the beginning of the 19th century. In 1834 it was decreased to 20 years. The recruits should have been not younger than 17 and not older than 35.^[11] In 1874 universal conscription on the modern pattern was introduced, an innovation only made possible by the abolition of serfdom in 1861. New military law decreed that all male Russian subjects, when they reached the age of 20, were eligible to serve in the military for six years.^[12]

Conscription was introduced in the Union Army The Union Army was the army that fought for the Union during the American Civil War. It was also known as the Federal Army, the U.S. Army, the Northern Army and the National Army. It consisted of the small United States Army , augmented by massive numbers of units supplied by the Northern states, composed of volunteers as well as draftees. The during the American Civil War The American Civil War , also known as the War Between the States and several other names, was a civil war in the United States of America. Eleven Southern slave states declared their secession from the U.S. and formed the Confederate States of America (the Confederacy). Led by Jefferson Davis, they fought against the U.S. federal government (the. The 1863 Enrollment Act permitted draftees to hire paid substitutes to fight in their place. This, and the bounty system, led to widespread dislike of conscription by the public at large; the New York Draft Riots The New York Draft Riots , were violent disturbances in New York City that were the culmination of discontent with new laws passed by Congress to draft men to fight in the ongoing American Civil War. The riots were the largest civil insurrection in American history apart from the Civil War itself. President Abraham Lincoln sent several regiments were one symptom. In addition, draftees were viewed with disdain by volunteer soldiers and their officers. In the end, the draft provided only 6% of the Union Army's manpower. Conscription was not employed again in the U.S. until 1917.^[13]

Louis Althusser Louis Pierre Althusser was a Marxist philosopher. He was born in Algeria and studied at the École Normale Supérieure in Paris, where he eventually became Professor of Philosophy has also underlined how Machiavelli Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli was an Italian philosopher, writer, and politician and is considered one of the main founders of modern political science.[citation needed] As a Renaissance Man, he was a diplomat, political philosopher, musician, poet and playwright, but, foremost, he was a Civil Servant of the Florentine Republic. In June of 1 was one of the first modern theorists to think the relationship between conscription and the creation of a nation, or successfully bolstering patriotism Patriotism is defined as love of and/or devotion to one's country. The word comes from the Greek patris. However, patriotism has had different meanings over time, and its meaning is highly dependent upon context, geography and philosophy. Machiavelli despised the use of mercenaries A mercenary is a person who takes part in an armed conflict, who is not a national or a party to the conflict, and is "motivated to take part in the hostilities essentially by the desire for private gain and, in fact, is promised, by or on behalf of a party to the conflict, material compensation substantially in excess of that promised or and professional armies, which at that time were ravaging the divided Italian states.

Sending conscripts to foreign wars that do not directly affect the home nation's security has historically been very politically contentious in democracies. For instance, during World War I World War I , also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Wars, was a global military conflict which involved the majority of the world's great powers, organized into two opposing military alliances: the Entente Powers and the Central Powers. Over 70 million military personnel were mobilized in one of the largest wars, bitter disputes broke out in Canada Canada is a country occupying most of northern North America, extending from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west and northward into the Arctic Ocean. It is the world's second largest country by total area and shares the world's longest common border with the United States to the south and northwest (see Conscription Crisis of 1917 Officially, Canada entered World War I at 20:45 on 4 August 1914. This came automatically as a result of Britain declaring war on Germany. Colonel Sam Hughes was the Canadian Minister of Militia and on 10 August he was permitted to create a militia of 25,000 men. Before the end of August 1914 Hughes had already created a training camp at), Australia Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the southern hemisphere comprising the mainland which is the world's smallest continent (also largest island), the major island of Tasmania, and numerous other islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans.N4 Neighbouring countries include Indonesia, East Timor and Papua New Guinea and New Zealand New Zealand is an island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses , and numerous smaller islands, most notably Stewart Island/Rakiura and the Chatham Islands. The indigenous Māori named New Zealand Aotearoa, commonly translated as The Land of the Long White Cloud. The Realm of New Zealand also includes the Cook (see Compulsory Military Training) over conscription. Canada also had a political dispute over conscription during World War II World War II, or the Second World War , was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including all of the great powers, organized into two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis. The war involved the mobilization of over 100 million military personnel, making it the most widespread war in history (see Conscription Crisis of 1944 The Conscription Crisis of 1944 was a political and military crisis following the introduction of forced military service in Canada during World War II. It was similar to the Conscription Crisis of 1917, but was not as politically damaging). Similarly, mass protests against conscription to fight the Vietnam War The Vietnam War occurred in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia from 1959 to 30 April 1975. The war was fought between the communist North Vietnam, supported by its communist allies, and the government of South Vietnam, supported by the United States and other member nations of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization occurred in several countries in the late 1960s. (See also: Conscription Crisis A conscription crisis is a public dispute about a policy of conscription, or mandatory service in the military, also known as a "draft". A dispute can become a crisis when submission to military service becomes highly controversial and popular revolt ensues. From the point of view of military officials, the crisis is one of supply; where)

Currently, countries that draft women into military service are China China has one of the world's oldest and continuous civilizations, consisting of states and cultures dating back more than six millennia. It has the world's longest continuously used written language system, and is the source of many major inventions, such as what the British scholar and biochemist Joseph Needham called the "four great, Cuba The Republic of Cuba (pronounced /ˈkjuːbə/, Spanish: Cuba or República de Cuba (help·info) IPA: [reˈpuβlika ðe ˈkuβa]) is an island country in the Caribbean. It consists of the island of Cuba, the Isla de la Juventud, and several archipelagos, Eritrea Eritrea (Ge'ez: ኤርትራ ʾErtrā, Arabic: إرتريا Iritriya), officially the State of Eritrea, is a country in Northeast Africa. It is bordered by Sudan in the west, Ethiopia in the south, and Djibouti in the southeast. The east and northeast of the country have an extensive coastline on the Red Sea, directly across from Saudi Arabia and, Israel Israel officially the State of Israel ( מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל (help·info), Medinat Yisra'el; Arabic: دَوْلَةُ إِسْرَائِيلَ‎, Dawlat Isrā'īl), is a country in Western Asia located on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. It borders Lebanon in the north, Syria in the northeast, Jordan in the east, and, Libya Libya (Arabic: ليبيا ‎ Lībiyā pronunciation ; Libyan vernacular: Lībya pronunciation (help·info); Amazigh: ), officially the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya ( الجماهيرية العربية الليبية الشعبية الإشتراكية العظمى ‎ Al-Jamāhīriyyah al-ʿArabiyyah al-Lībiyyah aš-Šaʿ, Malaysia Malaysia is a country that consists of thirteen states and three federal territories in Southeast Asia with a total landmass of 329,847 square kilometres (127,355 sq mi). The capital city is Kuala Lumpur, while Putrajaya is the seat of the federal government. The population stands at over 27 million. The country is separated into two regions —, North Korea North Korea, officially the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (Hangul: 조선민주주의인민공화국, Chosŏn Minjujuŭi Inmin Konghwaguk), is a state in East Asia, occupying the northern half of the Korean Peninsula. Its capital and largest city is Pyongyang. The Korean Demilitarized Zone serves as the buffer area between North Korea and, Peru Peru , officially the Republic of Peru (Spanish: República del Perú (help·info), IPA: [reˈpuβlika del peˈɾu]), is a country in western South America. It is bordered on the north by Ecuador and Colombia, on the east by Brazil, on the southeast by Bolivia, on the south by Chile, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean, and Taiwan Taiwan , also known as Formosa (福爾摩沙; from Portuguese (Ilha) Formosa, meaning "beautiful (island)"), is an island group located in East Asia between the South China Sea and the East China Sea off the southeastern coast of the Chinese mainland. It is well-known as the major area under the effective jurisdiction of the Republic of ^[14]^[15]. In 2002, Sweden Sweden (pronounced /ˈswiːdən/ ), officially the Kingdom of Sweden (Swedish: Konungariket Sverige (help·info)), is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden has land borders with Norway to the west and Finland to the northeast, and it is connected to Denmark by the Öresund Bridge in the south's government asked its army to consider mandatory military service for women. In the United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is a sovereign state located off the northwestern coast of continental Europe. It is an island country, spanning an archipelago including Great Britain, the northeastern part of Ireland, and many small islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the UK with a land border, sharing it with during World War II, beginning in 1941, women were brought into the scope of conscription but, as all women with dependent children were exempt and many women were informally left in occupations such as nursing or teaching, the number conscripted was relatively few.^[16]. In the USSR The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. The name is a translation of the Russian: Союз Советских Социалистических Республик (help·info), tr. Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik, abbreviated СССР, SSSR. The common, though there was no systematic conscription ov women for the armed forces, the severe disruption of normal life and the high proportion of civilians brought brutally into contact with the fighting that volunteers for volunteers for what was termed "The Great Patriotic War" found a ready response.^[17] The United States The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its forty-eight contiguous states and Washington, D.C., the capital district, lie between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the came close to drafting women into the Nurse Corps Categories: Military medical organizations | Military medicine | Nursing specialties | in preparation for a planned invasion of Japan.^[18]^[19]

In 1981 in the United States, several men filed lawsuit in the case Rostker v. Goldberg, alleging that the Military Selective Service Act violates the Due Process Clause Due process is the principle that the government must respect all of the legal rights that are owed to a person according to the law of the land. As developed through a large body of case law in the United States, this principle gives individuals a varying ability to enforce their rights against alleged violations by governments and their agents ( of the Fifth Amendment The Fifth Amendment of the United States Constitution, which is part of the Bill of Rights, protects against abuse of government authority in a legal procedure. Its guarantees stem from English common law which traces back to the Magna Carta in 1215. For instance, Grand Juries and the phrase "due process" both trace their origin to the by requiring that men only and not also women register with the SSS. The Supreme Court The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest judicial body in the United States, and leads the federal judiciary. It consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight Associate Justices, who are nominated by the President and confirmed with the "advice and consent" of the Senate. Once appointed, Justices effectively eventually upheld the Act, stating that "the argument for registering women was based on considerations of equity, but Congress was entitled, in the exercise of its constitutional powers, to focus on the question of military need, rather than 'equity.'"^[20]

On October 1, 1999 in the Taiwan Area The "Free Area of the Republic of China" is a legal and political description referring to the territories of the Republic of China under the control of its government. At present, it corresponds generally to the island groups of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu and some minor islands. As the island of Taiwan is the main component of the, the Judicial Yuan The Judicial Yuan is one of five branches of the government of the Republic of China in Taipei and serves as the highest judicial organ in Republic of China. Its Justices of the Constitutional Court (大法官會議, literally ‘Council of Grand Justices’), with 15 members, is charged with interpreting the Constitution. The President and Vice of the Republic of China in its Interpretation 490 considered that the physical differences between males and females and the derived role differentiation in their respective social functions and lives would not make drafting males only violating the Constitution of the Republic of China The Constitution of the Republic of China is the fundamental law of the Republic of China (ROC), commonly known as Taiwan. Drafted by the Kuomintang (KMT) as part of its third stage of national development (i.e. representative democracy), it established a centralized Republic with five branches of government. Though the Constitution was intended.^[21] However, transsexual Transsexualism is a condition in which an individual identifies with a physical sex different from the one they were born with. A medical diagnosis can be made if a person experiences discomfort as a result of a desire to be a member of the opposite sex, or if a person experiences impaired functioning or distress as a result of that gender persons are exempt from the Taiwanese conscription.^[22]

Conscientious objection

Main articles: Conscientious objection A conscientious objector is an individual who, on religious, moral or ethical grounds, refuses to participate as a combatant in war or, in some cases, to take any role that would support a combatant organization armed forces. In the first case, conscientious objectors may be willing to accept non-combatant roles during conscription or military, Anti militarism, and Conscientious objection throughout the world

A conscientious objector A conscientious objector is an individual who, on religious, moral or ethical grounds, refuses to participate as a combatant in war or, in some cases, to take any role that would support a combatant organization armed forces. In the first case, conscientious objectors may be willing to accept non-combatant roles during conscription or military is an individual whose personal beliefs are incompatible with military service The armed forces of a country are its government-sponsored defense, fighting forces, and organizations. They exist to further the foreign and domestic policies of their governing body, and to defend that body and the nation it represents from external and internal aggressors. In some countries paramilitary forces are included in a nation's armed, or sometimes with any role in the armed forces. In some countries, conscientious objectors have special legal status, which augments their conscription duties. For example, Sweden Sweden (pronounced /ˈswiːdən/ ), officially the Kingdom of Sweden (Swedish: Konungariket Sverige (help·info)), is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden has land borders with Norway to the west and Finland to the northeast, and it is connected to Denmark by the Öresund Bridge in the south allows conscientious objectors to choose a service in the "weapons-free" branch, such as an airport fireman Firefighters are rescuers extensively trained primarily to put out hazardous fires that threaten civilian populations and property, to rescue people from car accidents, collapsed and burning buildings and other such situations. The increasing complexity of modern industrialized life with an increase in the scale of hazards has stimulated both, nurse A nurse is a healthcare professional, who along with other health care professionals, is responsible for the treatment, safety, and recovery of acutely or chronically ill or injured people, health maintenance of the healthy, and treatment of life-threatening emergencies in a wide range of health care settings or telecommunications Telecommunication is the assisted transmission over a distance for the purpose of communication. In earlier times, this may have involved the use of smoke signals, drums, semaphore, flags or heliograph. In modern times, telecommunication typically involves the use of electronic devices such as the telephone, television, radio or computer. Early technician. Some may also refuse such service as they feel that they still are a part of the military complex. The reasons for refusing to serve are varied. Some conscientious objectors are so for religious reasons — notably, the members of the historic peace churches Peace churches are Christian churches, groups or communities advocating Christian pacifism. The term historic peace churches refers specifically to three church groups: the Church of the Brethren, the Mennonites, and the Religious Society of Friends are pacifist Pacifism is the opposition to war or violence as a means of settling disputes or gaining advantage. Pacifism covers a spectrum of views ranging from the belief that international disputes can and should be peacefully resolved; to calls for the abolition of the institutions of the military and war; to opposition to any organization of society by doctrine, and Jehovah's Witnesses Jehovah's Witnesses is a restorationist, millenarian Christian religious movement. They consider the Bible to be the supreme authority for their teachings and practices. The group emerged from the Bible Student movement, founded in the late 19th century by Charles Taze Russell, with the creation of the Watch Tower Society. It underwent significant, while not strictly speaking pacifists, refuse to participate in the armed services on the grounds that they believe Christians Adherents of Christianity, known as Christians, believe that Jesus is the Messiah prophesied in the Hebrew Bible . Orthodox Christian theology claims that Jesus suffered, died, and was resurrected to open heaven to humans. They further maintain that Jesus ascended into heaven, and most denominations teach that Jesus will return to judge all humans, should be neutral in worldly conflicts.

Draft evaders

The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the United States The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its forty-eight contiguous states and Washington, D.C., the capital district, lie between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article or discuss the issue on the talk page.

Main article : Draft dodger A draft dodger is a term, usually pejorative, that refers to a person who avoids the conscription policies of the nation in which he or she is a citizen or resident by leaving the country, going into hiding, or other attempts at fraudulent means. Avoidances involving nonviolence or conscientious objectorships are sometimes referred to as draft

Not everyone who is conscripted is willing to go to war. In the United States, especially during the Vietnam Era, some used political connections to ensure that they were placed well away from any potential harm, serving in what was termed a Champagne unit.

Many would avoid military service altogether through college deferments, by becoming fathers, or serving in various exempt jobs (teaching was one possibility). Others used educational exemptions, became conscientious objectors or pretended to be conscientious objectors, although they might then be drafted for non-combat work, such as serving as a combat medic Combat medics are trained military personnel who are responsible for providing first aid and frontline trauma care on the battlefield. They are also responsible for providing continuing medical care in the absence of a readily available physician, including care for disease and battle injury. Combat medics are normally co-located with the combat. It was also possible they could be asked to do similar civilian work, such as being a hospital orderly.

It was, in fact, quite easy for those with some knowledge of the system to avoid being drafted. A simple route, widely publicized, was to get a medical rejection. While a person could claim to have symptoms (or feign homosexuality) if enough physicians sent letters that a person had a problem, he might well be rejected. It often wasn't worth the Army's time to dispute this claim. Such an approach worked best in a larger city where there was no stigma to not serving, and the potential draftee was not known to those reviewing him.

For others, the most common method of avoiding the draft was to cross the border into another country. People who have been "called up" for military service and who attempted to avoid it in some way were known as "draft-dodgers". Particularly during the Vietnam War, US draft-dodgers usually made their way to Canada, Mexico or Sweden.

Many people looked upon draft-dodgers with scorn as being "cowards", but some supported them in their efforts. In the late years of the Vietnam War, objections against it and support for draft-dodgers was much more outspoken, because of the casualties suffered by American troops, and the actual cause and purpose of the war being heavily questioned.

Toward the end of the US draft, an attempt was made to make the system somewhat fairer by turning it into a lottery, with each of the year's calendar dates randomly assigned a number. Men born on lower numbered dates were called up for review. For the reasons given above, this did not make the system any fairer, and the entire system ended in 1973. Today, American men 18-25 are required to register with the government, but there has not been a callup since the Vietnam Era.

Draft resisters

Main article: Antimilitarism

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be and removed. (September 2008)

Historically, there has been resistance to conscription in almost every country and situation where it has been imposed.^{[citation needed]} The New York Draft Riots (July 11 to July 16, 1863; known at the time as Draft Week), were violent disturbances in New York City that were the culmination of discontent with new laws passed by Congress to draft men to fight in the ongoing American Civil War. The Central Asian Revolt started in the summer of 1916, when the Russian Empire government ended its exemption of Muslims from military service.

In the USA and some other countries, the Vietnam War saw new levels of opposition to conscription and the Selective Service System. Many people opposed to and facing conscription chose to either apply for classification and assignment to civilian alternative service or noncombatant service within the military as conscientious objectors, or to evade the draft by fleeing to a neutral country. A small proportion, like Muhammad Ali, chose to resist the draft by publicly and politically fighting conscription. Some people resist at the point of registration for the draft. In the USA since 1980, for example, the draft resistance movement has focused on mandatory draft registration. Others resist at the point of induction, when they are ordered to put on a uniform, when they are ordered to carry or use a weapon, or when they are ordered into combat.

There are those who are immune to the draft in certain countries; These people include anyone who works for the government (Teachers, police officers, lawmakers, etc), People who work for government contractors, and those who work in jobs essential to the operation of the country (waste management, power plants, etc). In the United Kingdom this is known as a reserved occupation as it is deemed necessary to the survival of the nation.

In Israel, the Muslim and Christian Arab minority, as well as many ultra-Orthodox Jews are also exempt from mandatory service. This exemption, however, does not cover Druze Israeli citizens and several Bedouin Muslim villages.^{[dubious – discuss]} Permanent residents such as the Druze of the Golan Heights are also excused. Exemption does not prevent members of the exempted groups from volunteering although such behavior is marginal.^{[citation needed]}

Though some conscripts feel that they benefited from their experience in the military, others feel that their time could have been spent more productively pursuing their chosen studies or career paths.^[23] Individual resentment may also be compounded by the typically low or no wages paid to conscripts, especially in countries such as Greece, South Korea, Finland, and Iran. In Singapore, allowance, and not wages, is given to full-time national service personnel, since policies see National Service as a duty rendered to the country and its citizens.^{[citation needed]} The Finnish army does not pay any wages to conscripts, but instead grants them a daily allowance of 3.60 to 8.25 euros, depending of length of tour of duty. The Greek Army pays a monthly allowance which at the moment stands at 8.62 euros (per month)for privates. Reserve Officers earn more but have to pay for their living expenses off-base themselves.

Countries with and without mandatory military service

See: Military service

Conscription by country — Examples
Country	Land area^[24]	GDP nominal (US$M)^[25]	Per capita GDP (US$)^[26]	Population^[27]	Government^[28]	Conscription^[29]
Albania	27,398	$10,620	$2,949.57	3,619,778	emerging democracy	Yes
Algeria	2,381,740	$90,000	$2,700.01	33,333,216	republic	Yes
Angola	1,246,700	$28,610	$2,332.92	12,263,596	republic; multiparty presidential regime	Yes
Argentina	2,736,690	$210,000	$5,210.67	40,301,927	republic	Legal, not practiced
Australia	7,617,930	$644,700	$31,550.09	20,434,176	federal parliamentary democracy	No (banned as enshrined by parliament in 1972^[30]
Austria	82,444	$310,100	$37,818.07	8,233,300	federal republic	Yes
Bahamas	10,070	$6,586,	$21,547.17	307,451	constitutional parliamentary democracy	No
Bangladesh	133,910	$72,420	$481.36	153,546,896	parliamentary democracy	No
Belgium	30,528	$316,200	$31,400	10,584,534	democracy	No (conscription suspended since 1994)
Belize	22,806	$1,274	$4,327.67	301,270	parliamentary democracy	Military service is voluntary
Bhutan	47,000	$1,308	$561.89	682,321	(possibly outdated) absolute monarchy; special treaty relationship with India; note - transition to a constitutional monarchy is expected in 2008^{[citation needed]} constitutional monarchy; special treaty relationship with India	Yes (selective)
Bolivia	1,084,390	$13,190	$1,446.41	9,247,816	republic	Yes (only when there are few volunteers^{[citation needed]})
Bosnia and Herzegovina	51,197	$14,780	$3,246.78	4,590,310	emerging federal democratic republic	Yes
Brazil	1,314,000	$967,000	$6,915.40	196,342,592	federal republic	Yes
Bulgaria	110,550	$39,610	$5,409.09	7,262,675	parliamentary democracy	No (abolished by law in January 1, 2008^[31])
Burma	657,740	$13,530	$285.60	47,758,180	military junta	No^[29] Officially prohibited, de facto still practiced^{[citation needed]}
China	9,326,410	$3,251,000	$2,459.43	1,330,044,544	Communist state	Yes (selective)
Croatia	56,414	$51,360	$11,430.32	4,491,543	presidential/parliamentary democracy	No (abolished by law in 2008)^[32]
Cuba	110,860	$45,580	$4,000.34	11,423,952	Communist state	Yes (both sexes^{[citation needed]})
Denmark	42,394	$311,900	$57,039.71	5,484,723	constitutional monarchy	Yes
Djibouti	22,980	$841	$1,694.29	506,221	republic	No
El Salvador	20,720	$20,370	$2,931.75	7,066,403	republic	Legal, not practiced
Finland	304,473	$245,000	$46,769.47	5,244,749	republic	Yes
France	640,053^[33]	$2,560,000	$35,240.62	61,037,510	republic	No (conscription suspended since 2001)^[23]
Gambia, The	10,000	$653	$386.77	1,735,464	republic	No
Germany	349,223	$3,322,000	$40,315.05	82,369,552	federal republic	Yes (Alternative serviceavailable^{[citation needed]})
Greece	130,800	$314,600	$29,384.60	10,722,816	parliamentary republic	Yes
Grenada	344	$590	$6,557.67	90,343	parliamentary democracy	No (no military service)
Hungary	92,340	$138,400	$13,901.01	9,930,915	parliamentary democracy	No (abolished in 2004^{[citation needed]})
Iran	1,636,000	$193,500	$2,958.83	68,251,090	theocratic republic	Yes
India	2,973,190	$1,099,000	$972.68	1,147,995,904	federal republic	No
Israel	20,330	$161,900	$25,191.86	7,112,359	parliamentary democracy	Yes (both sexes^{[citation needed]})
Jamaica	10,831	$11,210	$4,032.18	2,804,332	constitutional parliamentary democracy	No
Japan	374,744	$4,384,000	$34,402.26	127,288,416	constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary government	No
Jordan	91,971	$16,010	$2,644.89	6,198,677	constitutional monarchy	Uncertain^[34]
Korea, North	120,410	$40,000^[35]	$1,800^[35]	23,479,088^[35]	Communist state one-man dictatorship^[35]	Yes^[36]
Korea, South	98,190	$957,100	$19,514.81	48,379,392	republic	Yes
Kuwait	17,820	$60,720	$24,234.11	2,505,559	constitutional emirate	Yes
Lebanon	10,230	$24,640	$6,276.90	3,971,941	republic	No (abolished in 2007)^[37]
Libya	1,759,540	$57,060	$9,451.85	6,173,579	jamahiriya (a state of the masses) in theory, governed by the populace through local councils; in practice, an authoritarian state	Yes
Luxembourg	2,586	$50,160	$104,451.69	486,006	constitutional monarchy	No
Macedonia, Republic of	24,856	$7,497	$3,646.55	2,061,315	parliamentary democracy	No (abolished in 2006)^[38]
Malaysia	328,550	$186,500,	$7,513.71	25,274,132	constitutional monarchy	Yes
Maldives	300	$1,049	$2,842.58	385,925	republic	No
Malta	316	$7,419	$18,460.73	403,532	republic	No
Moldova	33,371	$4,227	$978.36	4,324,450	republic	Yes
Netherlands	33,883	$768,700,	$46,389.35	16,645,313	constitutional monarchy	Legal, not practiced^{[citation needed]} See also: Conscription in the Netherlands
New Zealand	268,021	$128,100	$31,124.18	4,173,460	parliamentary democracy	No
Philippines	298,170	$144,100	$1,582.17	96,061,680	Republic	Yes
Poland	304,459	$420,300	$10,911.71	38,500,696	republic	No^[39]
Qatar	11,437	$67,760	$74,688.97	824,789	emirate	No
Romania	230,340	$166,000	$7,451.95	22,246,862	republic	No (ended in 2007)^[40]
Russia	16,995,800	$1,290,000	$9,124.49	140,702,096	federation	Yes
Rwanda	24,948	$3,320	$335.10	10,186,063	republic; presidential, multiparty system	No
Saudi Arabia	376,000	$276,900	$13,622.68	28,146,656	monarchy	No
Seychelles	455	$710	$8,669.64	82,247	republic	Yes
Singapore	682.7	$161,300	$35,427.12	4,608,167	parliamentary republic	Yes
Slovenia	20,151	$46,080	$22,933.99	2,007,711	parliamentary republic	yes
South Africa	1,219,912	$282,600	$6,423.04	48,782,756	republic	No
Spain	499,542	$1,439,000	$35,576.37	40,491,052	parliamentary monarchy	No
Syria	184,050	$37,760	$1,954.98	19,747,586	republic under an authoritarian military-dominated regime	Yes
Swaziland	17,203	$2,936	$2,591.20	1,128,814	monarchy	No
Switzerland	39,770	$423,900	$56,111.06	7,581,520	formally a confederation but similar in structure to a federal republic	Yes
Taiwan^[41] (Republic of China)	32,260	$383,300	$16,768.11	22,920,946	multiparty democracy	Yes (alternative service available^[42]) An all-volunteer force is planned by the end of 2014.^[43]
Thailand	511,770	$245,700	$3,776.0	65,493,296	constitutional monarchy	Yes
Tonga	718	$219	$1,873.06	119,009	constitutional monarchy	No
Trinidad and Tobago	5,128	$20,700	$19,590.99	1,047,366	parliamentary democracy	No
Turkey	770,760	$663,400	$9,322.83	71,892,808	republican parliamentary democracy	Yes
United Kingdom	241,590	$2,773,000,	$45,626.38	60,943,912	constitutional monarchy	No (except Bermuda Regiment )
United States	9,161,923	$13,840,000	$45,958.70	303,824,640	Constitution-based federal republic	No^[44]
Vanuatu	12,200	$455	$2,146.52	215,446	parliamentary republic	No

Arguments against conscription

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Many arguments opposed to conscription, or opposed to gender-discriminated conscription, arise from its alleged violation of the principles of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of the United Nations. In particular:

Art.2: Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as (…) sex (…)
Art.3: Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person.
Art.4: No one shall be held in (…) servitude (…)
Art.18: Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance.
Art.20: (…) No one may be compelled to belong to an association.
Art.23: Everyone has the right (…) to free choice of employment (…)

In addition, many constitutions do provide similar rights in countries where there is or has been some form of conscription after World War II or that maintain a possibility of conscription in time of war.

Slavery

Conscription subjects individual personalities to militarism. It is a form of servitude. That nations routinely tolerate it, is just one more proof of its debilitating influence.

— Albert Einstein, Sigmund Freud, H.G. Wells, Bertrand Russell and Thomas Mann in Against Conscription and the Military Training of Youth — 1930^[45]

Some groups, such as libertarians, say that the draft constitutes slavery, since it is mandatory work^[46]. Under the Thirteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, slavery or other involuntary servitude is not allowed unless it is part of punishment for a crime. They therefore see the draft as unconstitutional (at least in the U.S.) and immoral. In 1918, the Supreme Court ruled that the World War I draft did not violate the United States Constitution. Arver v. United States, 245 U.S. 366 (1918). The Court detailed its conclusion that the limited powers of the federal government included conscription. Its only statement on the Thirteenth Amendment issue reads thus:

Finally, as we are unable to conceive upon what theory the exaction by government from the citizen of the performance of his supreme and noble duty of contributing to the defense of the rights and honor of the nation as the result of a war declared by the great representative body of the people can be said to be the imposition of involuntary servitude in violation of the prohibitions of the Thirteenth Amendment, we are constrained to the conclusion that the contention to that effect is refuted by its mere statement.

In the USSR, most of the conscripts received only very basic training and were used for forced labor unrelated to actual military service, such as building Dachas (second homes) for officers or digging up potatoes in the field with zero wage cost^[47]. This contributed to the lack of incentives for the Soviet-planned economy system to produce better combined harvesting machines and Soviet agriculture remained low-tech.^{[citation needed]}

In Soviet-bloc Hungary, more than half of pre-1989 conscripts received a mere few weeks of rifle training and were swiftly assigned to "working squadrons," which usually hand-built rail tracks "for free", and in very poor quality. At the same time, railway tracks in Western Europe were being built to high-quality standards by semi-automatic, rail-rolling factories operated by a professional workforce.^{[citation needed]}

Ageism

Conscription is usually limited to young people, and the burden of conscription is almost never spread equally across all age groups.^{[citation needed]} The youngest people considered qualified are usually conscripted first.^{[citation needed]} Opponents of ageism, and advocates of youth liberation, argue that age-based military conscription is the most severe disparity on the basis of age of any government mandate on individuals.^{[citation needed]} This argument is epitomized by the Phil Ochs song, "I Ain't Marching Anymore": "It's always the old who lead us to the war; it's always the young who fall." Even in countries with elected governments, conscripts are often too young to be allowed to vote or participate in decisions on whether to go to war or to impose or set policies for conscription.^{[citation needed]} The Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which lowered the voting age to 18, was proposed and approved largely in response to criticism of conscription based on the unfairness of drafting men too young to be allowed to vote. But draft-age voters in the USA are still overwhelmingly outnumbered by voters considered to be too old to be conscripted.^{[citation needed]}

Sexism

Traditionally conscription has been limited to the male population. Women and non-able-bodied males have been exempted from conscription. Many societies have traditionally considered conscription as a test of manhood and a rite of passage from boyhood into manhood^{[citation needed]}.

Discipline problems

No military can operate effectively without discipline. Discipline can either be taught from esprit de corps, already-acquired motivation of the personnel or be fundamentally embedded into the troops through guidance from leadership. One can speculate^{[original research?]} that volunteers manifest less undisciplined behavior, however citizens conscripted might have little motivation to serve. As motivation is based on coercion, the corrective action imposed upon undisciplined conscriptees is often harsh.^{[citation needed]} Capital punishment, usually by firing squad, was used almost universally to maintain discipline in conscript militaries during wartime.^{[citation needed]} Antony Beevor has estimated the executions covered some 1% to 5% of all conscript losses in World War II.^{[citation needed]} This can be best summarized by a statement from Leon Trotsky:

"An army cannot be built without reprisals. Masses of men cannot be led to death unless the command has the death penalty in its arsenal. So long as those malicious tailless apes that are so proud of their technical achievements — the animals that we call men — will build armies and wage wars, the command will always be obliged to place the soldiers between the possible death in the front and the inevitable one in the rear."

Consequently, conscript armies are more likely to commit mutiny than all-volunteer forces, and can in extreme cases turn against their own (see fragging). The Vlasov Army is an extreme example of a conscript army turning against their own.

Discipline problems become much worse when the ablest of the youth are forced to serve against their will under the authority of people they consider less intelligent, untalented, or simply because of unquestioned authority.^{[citation needed]} This was seldom a problem in the period of Industrialism when only the upper classes had access to higher education, but proved problematic in the Vietnam War, when college students were conscripted to fight under non-commissioned officers, many of whom had not finished high school and few of whom had any higher education.^{[citation needed]}

Nationalism and promoting militarism

The military draft is predicated on the assumption that nations have rights that supersede those of the individual. In the words of Einstein and Gandhi's Anti-Conscription Manifesto, "The State which thinks itself entitled to force its citizens to go to war will never pay proper regard to the value and happiness of their lives in peace." The building of large conscript armies coincided with the rise of virulent nationalism in the 19th and 20th centuries, culminating in World War II.

In peacetime, conscription can create an atmosphere of militarism and bigotry in society. Many young men in countries with compulsory conscription develop a cynical stance about militarism because the mandatory nature of conscription creates low morale among soldiers.^{[citation needed]} This is especially true in countries where nationalist feelings are weak to begin with, such as Austria, Germany and Sweden, or where conditions are brutal.

Men who have had military training can also be more ready to use violence to solve conflicts than those who have not.^{[citation needed]} Conscription also may create an atmosphere of chauvinism, sexism and discrimination against those men who haven't served in the armed forces.

Justification for attacks on civilians

Conscription is a component of total war, and can also be used as an example of established policy to justify a government's demand that other sacrifices be required of civilians. Once a draft is allowed, Justice Louis Brandeis argued, "all bets are off".^[48] Arguably this results in a blurring of the moral distinction between civilians and the military as legitimate military targets, leading to attacks on civilians, although this view runs counter to the laws and customs of war: young people who could be conscripted, but are not in the armed forces (or otherwise bearing arms in a conflict) are still legally considered civilians.^{[citation needed]}

Examples would include the indiscriminate bombing of cities conducted by both sides during World War II, the My Lai Massacre. Hamas guerrillas also claim their deliberate targeting of Israeli civilians is justified by the existence of conscription in Israel. It has been popular recently to call civilian deaths "collateral damage" although their deaths are highly predictable. In fact, during the last century, civilian deaths have grown compared to military deaths in conflict.^{[citation needed]}

Quality

One of the objections raised^[who?] is that a conscript force would be of lower quality than a volunteer army. First, short periods of service do not allow for much skill building. Second, there is a possibility of a morale drop in units with conscripts, leading to a reduction in quality as officers and NCOs work to alleviate those problems.

The biggest problem is that the pace of training has to be adjusted to the level of the lowest quality candidate. Combined with the apparent lack of motivation and short tour of duty, this renders the skills of the conscripts very low compared to volunteer professionals. Therefore the elite units of all armies which have conscription, are composed entirely of selected volunteers, such as Parachute Rangers in the Finnish army.

Likewise, the military training of the conscripts is almost universally very rudimentary. It seldom goes beyond drill, shooting practice, rudimentary specialization on one's service branch and weapons and basic battlefield training. The Argentinians referred to conscription as la colimba from words correr (run), limpiar (cleanse) and barrer (march), with allusion of conscription being merely irrelevant tasks at barracks instead of real combat skills training. Likewise, many nations have used conscripts simply as indentured, low-cost work force, organized as "work battalions" for agriculture and building infrastructure instead of decent military service.^{[citation needed]}

Economics

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be and removed. (December 2006)

It can be argued that in a cost-to-benefit ratio, conscription during peace time is not worthwhile.^[49] Months or years of service amongst the most fit subtracts from the productivity of the economy; add to this the cost of training them, and in some countries paying them. Compared to these extensive costs, some would argue there is very little benefit; if there ever was a war then conscription and basic training could be completed quickly, and in in any case there is little threat of a war in most countries with conscription.

The cost to particularly in times of military duress, such as the current U.S. conflict in Iraq, conscription serves as an instrument through which fresh soldiers may be readied when reserves and voluntary troops have been over utilized. These new troops ultimately provide more efficient use of U.S. economic resources since individuals plan for military involvement as a normal activity. Draft assignments, in contrast, disrupt everyday activity and lead to possibly greater economic shock.^{[citation needed]}

The cost of conscription can be related to the parable of the broken window. Military service can be related to any other work, such as that of policeman. The costs of work do not disappear anywhere even if no salary is paid. The work effort of the conscripts is effectively wasted; unwilling work force is extremely inefficient and the conscripts also lose their the costs of all-volunteer paid force. The impact is especially severe in wartime, when civilian professionals are forced to fight as amateur soldiers. Not only is the work effort of the conscripts wasted and productivity is lost, but professionally-skilled conscripts are also difficult to replace in the civilian work force. Every soldier conscripted in the army is taken away from his civilian work, and away from contributing to the economy which funds the military. This is not a problem in an agrarian or pre-industrialized state where the level of education is universally low, and where a worker is easily replaced by another. However, this proves extremely problematic in a post-industrial society where educational levels are high and where the work force is highly sophisticated and a replacement for a conscripted specialist is difficult to find. Even direr economic consequences result if the professional conscripted as an amateur soldier is killed or maimed for life; his work effort and productivity is irrevocably lost.^[50]

Draft as a tool to subjugate society

Another argument^[who?] sees conscription as a tool for dictatorships to control and re-educate a population instead of being a means for an oppressed people to infiltrate the military as the power base for every dictatorship. Especially since the military is inherently based on giving and obeying orders, instead of democracy, it is argued that a draft is a far more effective tool to instill obedience and unconditional following into society than giving a democratic populace the opportunity to control the military.

Supporting that argument is the fact, that Nazi Germany changed the Reichswehr from an all-volunteer army in 1934 into the conscription-based Wehrmacht.

Also almost all contemporary dictatorships have a military draft (Syria, North Korea, as well as Iraq under Saddam Hussein). Virtually all former military dictatorships relied heavily on conscribing their entire adolescent male populations^{[citation needed]} (with the military dictatorship of Burma being a notable exception). The former military dictatorships of Turkey, Greece, Spain, Chile, Argentina, Brazil, Indonesia and Libya maintained draft systems throughout their reigns as well as all formerly communist dictatorships and the Soviet Union itself.

Arguments for conscription

Valuable training

Some communitarians argue that peacetime conscription is an ideal tool for teaching a population basic, important skills such as first aid, swimming, and wilderness survival. They also argue that conscription makes for a more disciplined and skilled workforce, as men and women leave the military and take the skills which they honed there back to their civilian jobs.

Rite of passage

In many countries, conscription serves as a rite of passage.^{[citation needed]} The prospective man is tested, to see whether or not he can endure the hardships of military training and earn the right to be called a man.^{[citation needed]} Military service, in countries that have it, may then be seen as the test of manhood. Conscription may inspire camaraderie, unifying a people: all able-bodied males together as a union have had the same experience and are soldiers, and that may create unity and a national spirit.^{[citation needed]}

Draft as protection against democracy-destroying military coups

Some argue that conscription should be connected to democracy. A professional army can possibly become a dangerous state-within-a-state. Military virtues such as obedience to orders and respect for the chain of command can possibly be abused by aspiring dictators. Armed forces can attract — consciously or unconsciously — people who prefer authoritarian systems. The army can even become the only chance for a job and decent life in times of unemployment (this was crucial in the rise of Japanese militarism,^{[citation needed]}) or for despised minorities. Such people may come to regard the army as their home and elevate it above the state.

On the other hand, once in power dictators such as Napoléon Bonaparte, Adolf Hitler, and Saddam Hussein have used conscription. The most significant attempt on Hitler's life was from the professional component of his military.

One should also note the 1980 Turkish coup d'état and many other coup d'états because the military was dissatisfied with the democratic election, despite the fact that Turkey had a military based on conscripts.^{[citation needed]}

Manpower

Small countries have several options to raise a sizeable army. One is to put every able-bodied man under arms. This is how Switzerland managed to stay independent despite repeated attacks throughout history.^[51] The Swiss militias were so successful that their fighting style and weapons (especially the halberd) were quickly adopted by their enemies.^[52] This in turn made the Swiss very popular as mercenaries; many rulers even raised Swiss Guards. The rich Flemish trade cities of the early 14th century raised huge militias that could even defeat armies of knights. The famous Battle of the Golden Spurs (1302) is a good example.

Other options for national defense include membership in a military alliance like NATO, as is the case for countries like Belgium and Luxembourg. Switzerland started out as a military alliance between independent cantons. However, the membership in such alliance decreases the independence of a country, making it dependent on its stronger allies. Several NATO members maintain conscription, so an alliance is not mutually exclusive with conscription.

Also, a wealthy small country could hire a professional mercenary army. This approach does, however, require wealth and men who are willing to hire on. Moreover, it requires some means to control the mercenaries if they became unruly.

Due to the attrition inherent in warfare, it is difficult to maintain the numbers needed for a wholly professional military, especially in a lengthy war. Complicating matters is the fact that military service in such times becomes more and more unattractive, even if the war has broad support. It is for this reason that the previously all-volunteer Union Army and the World War I British Army switched to conscription after a few years of combat and its associated losses.

However, conscription creates numbers but not quality. Niccolò Machiavelli's attempts to raise a conscript army in Florence ended in catastrophe; the conscripts did not have adequate training or experience, and were awkward to perform drill and maneuver. If the conscript army is trained only during the crisis, the limits on time and resources on training enable only rudimentary training; anything else is to be learnt on the battlefield. However, this can be avoided by peace-time conscription to train a large reserve usable in a crisis. The quality of the reserve must be maintained by steady refresher exercises. In several countries where conscription is in use, the length (and quality) of the training is virtually similar to that of professional armies.

The losses to conscript armies on the battlefield are often large, but waste of manpower is limited by the fact that the supply of able-bodied males in a nation is not inexhaustible. In addition, any government waging a prolonged war with conscripts will risk losing popular support and following loss of power.^{[citation needed]} For a democratic government, this limits the use of conscript forces for wars that are fights for existence. Pursuing national interests or expeditionary wars may still necessitate a large professional army.^{[citation needed]}

Conscripts can also be used away from combat roles, in such duties as garrisoning important areas, internal security, protection of supply routes, thus relieving the professionals for the front.

Conscript quality

This section may contain original research or unverified claims. Please improve the article by adding references. See the talk page for details. (December 2007)

The manpower quality of a conscript force is considered poor in many countries^{[citation needed]} and conversely, governments are reluctant to invest in professional-quality training of conscripts, giving poor-quality forces. However, in some countries with conscription, the personnel diversity of the conscript force is considered its greatest strength.^[53] Admittedly, there are persons who would not be employed by a professional force, but these are a minority and can be discharged for medical reasons in extreme cases.^{[original research?]}

However, the conscript force may also receive the best of the youth, who would never join a professional army^{[citation needed]}. Many conscripts are from such social strata that they would have much more lucrative employment or would be studying, were they not obliged to serve. These persons provide talented manpower that can easily be trained for technical and leadership duties. As junior NCO and commissioned officer positions are filled with leadership-trained conscripts, the size and cost of the professional cadre is much smaller.^[53] As these ex-conscripts, as reservists, mature and lose their fighting fitness, they can be subsequently retrained and given emergency positions corresponding their civilian expertise. For example, a transport manager who is a reserve officer might serve as a battalion logistics chief during wartime.^[54]^[55] The leadership-trained conscripts can also be recruited to the regular forces. The vast improvement of the Egyptian Army in between the Six Day War and the Yom Kippur War has been attributed to the decision to conscript college graduates who were previously exempt.

In lengthy wars such as World War II, the differences between conscripts and professionals may disappear over time. During war commanders look to the combat experience of soldiers and units as an indication of quality, and conscripts who have seen action will be far more valuable to their superiors than green professionals.

The heterogeneity of the manpower is also the Achilles heel of conscription armies. The worst problem is that the training must be designed by the physical fitness and the learning ability of the least able of the youth. However, this can be at least partly avoided by differentiating the conscript training. Even the least able can usually fulfill important roles in relatively easy logistics duties, while the most able can be trained quite well as specialists.^[56] The more heterogeneous the manpower is, the more likely it is also to experience internal conflicts eroding the cohesion of the troops. In many cases, the conscript servicemates may have social or societal problems, they may be criminals, bullies or drug abusers, or they may even be sociopaths. Allowing such persons to serve is problematic. They may corrode the capability of the unit, even endangering the safety of the others. Some countries have recognized this problem, and attempt to exclude the potential troublemakers even before they get to serve, using medical discharges, for example.^[57] On the other hand, in some countries (like in Russia) the problems with this issue are extremely dire (see dedovschina). There is also the argument that if the problem can be classified as juvenile delinquency, then the military functions as a "men's school".^{[citation needed]} By giving responsibility, youth development is induced, and adolescent-typical criminal behavior ceases.^{[citation needed]} The problem is that the coercion type environment of conscription armies encourage avoidance of responsibility, rather than accepting it, being more likely to promote such antisocial behaviour than to discourage it.^{[citation needed]}

Political and moral motives

This section may contain original research or unverified claims. Please improve the article by adding references. See the talk page for details. (December 2007)

Jean Jacques Rousseau argued vehemently against professional armies, feeling it was the right and privilege of every citizen to participate to the defense of the whole society and a mark of moral decline to leave this business to professionals. He based this view on the development of the Roman republic, which came to an end at the same time as the Roman army changed from a conscript to professional force.^[58] Similarly, Aristotle linked the division of armed service among the populace intimately with the political order of the state.^[59] Niccolò Machiavelli argued strongly for conscription, seeing the professional armies as the cause of the failure of societal unity in Italy.

Some ideologies and cultures, and those based on collectivism or statism, such as Fascism, value the society and common good above the life of an individual. Those ideologies and world-views justify the state to force its members to protect itself and risk their lives for the common good. In states based on society-centered ideologies, world-views and religions, such as in all Communist countries, conscription is seen as the natural way of raising the army. Other proponents such as the late William James consider both mandatory military and national service as ways of instilling maturity in young adults as well a way to entail a sense of "sacrifice" and "self-denial".^[60]^[61]

In the era of total war, the conscription is the only alternative for a small nation to build an army of credible strength without depending on alliances. This is particularly the case when the opposing state is significantly larger. In such a case, a voluntary force often can not, regardless of its quality, stand against the sheer numbers of the opposing force.

The right of the state to conscript its citizens can be founded on utilitarianist principles.^{[citation needed]} If a greater good would achieved, every thing considered, by sacrificing some soldiers a state should be willing to make this sacrifice.^{[original research?]} This assumes that state have right to use its citizens for achieving greater good for the humankind.

Conscription in the United Kingdom is often eulogised for its potential as a beneficial harsh or life-changing treatment,^[62]^[63] with views expressed including that the military is better placed than the justice system to deal with miscreants^[64], that it would improve youth in general to be brought into line by military training and service, or simply that the suggestion that criminals should be “sent to Iraq”^[65]. This view, which was the subject of the song “Call up the Groups” by The Barron Knights soon after the end of National Service, underpinned the Bad Lads’ Army TV series, which aimed to “recreate” National Service with first ordinary and later “bad” young men, who necessarily were volunteers who had chosen to attempt to change their lives through the programme. The idea is not seriously considered politically on the basis that standards of troops recruited voluntarily will be higher.^[66]

Economics

In a very large war, (such as World War II) raising a large enough volunteer military would require dramatic increases in taxes or budget deficits.^{[citation needed]} In such cases conscription can have lower negative impact than the impact of these higher taxes and possibly be more equitable (higher taxes would penalize those out of service much more than those in service).^{[citation needed]} Research into fiscal impacts of conscription in World War II suggest a volunteer army raised to the same size would have had worse economic impact in terms of economic growth.^{[citation needed]}

It is estimated by the British military that in a professional military, one company deployed for active duty in peacekeeping corresponds to three inactive companies at home. Salaries for each are paid from the military budget. In contrast, volunteers from a trained reserve are in their civilian jobs when they are not deployed. ^[67]

References

^ Janissary on Everything2.com
^ Lewis. Race and Slavery in the Middle East
^ The Turks: History and Culture
^ In the Service of the State and Military Class
^ Janissary corps, or Janizary, or Yeniçeri (Turkish military), Encyclopædia Britannica
^ Janissaries
^ The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty (Timeline)
^ Lewis. Race and Slavery in the Middle East. Oxford Univ Press 1994.
^ Conscription
^ Dierk Walter. Preussische Heeresreformen 1807-1870: Militärische Innovation und der Mythos der "Roonschen Reform". 2003, in Citino, p. 130
^ Military service in Russia Empire
^ Conscription and Resistance: The Historical Context
^ Brig. Gen. John S. Brown (August 1, 2007) ( – ^{Scholar search}), The Draft, http://www.ausa.org/webpub/DeptArmyMagazine.nsf/byid/TWAH-759L7H?OpenDocument&Print=1, retrieved on 2007-01-15
^ CBC News Indepth: International military
^ The Economic Costs and the Political Allure of Conscription
^ Roger Broad (2006), Conscription in Britain, 1939-1964: the militarisation of a generation, Taylor & Francis, p. 244, ISBN 9780714657011, http://books.google.com/books?id=NWAzKA6ihUEC. ^ Conscription into military service, Peace Pledge Union, http://www.ppu.org.uk/learn/infodocs/st_conscription_l.html.
^ Jack Cassin-Scott; Angus McBride (1980), Women at war, 1939-45, Osprey Publishing, pp. 33-34, ISBN 9780850453492, http://books.google.com/books?id=gPUtcFooPNoC.
^ Draft Women?, Time magazine, January 15, 1945, http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,775362,00.html, retrieved on 2008-08-12
^ The women's draft. An analysis of the controversy over the nurses' Selective Service Bill of 1945., PubMed, PMID: 4580476, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4580476, retrieved on 2008-08-12
^ Rostker v. Goldberg, Cornell Law School, retrieved 26 December 2006.
^ Judicial Yuan Interpretation 490 translated by Jiunn-rong Yeh
^ (Chinese)Attachment of the standard of the class of physical condition of a draftee, Conscription Agency, Ministry of the Interior
^ ^a ^b "France salutes end of military service", BBC News, November 29, 2001. Retrieved September 29, 2006.
^ Nationmaster: Land area. SOURCE: All CIA World Factbooks 18 December 2003 to 18 December 2008.
^ Nationmaster: GDP. SOURCE: All CIA World Factbooks 18 December 2003 to 18 December 2008
^ Nationmaster: Per capita GDP. SOURCE: All CIA World Factbooks 18 December 2003 to 18 December 2008.
^ Nationmaster: Population. SOURCE: World Development Indicators database and CIA World Factbooks.
^ Nationmaster: Government type. SOURCE: All CIA World Factbooks 18 December 2003 to 18 December 2008.
^ ^a ^b Nationmaster: Conscription. SOURCE: Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Geneva, Switzerland, 1997. Data collected from the nations concerned, unless otherwise indicated. Acronyms: Amnesty International (AI); European Council of Conscripts Organizations (ECCO); Friends World Committee for Consultation (FWCC); International Helsinki Federation for Human Rights (IHFHR); National Interreligious Service Board for Conscientious Objectors (NISBCO); Service, Peace and Justice in Latin America (SERPAJ); War Resisters International (WRI); World Council of Churches (WCC).
^ Conscription was abolished by law in 1973.) But the Defence Act 1903 as amended retained a provision that it could be reintroduced by proclamation of the Governor-General. Potentially all Australian residents between the ages of 18 and 60 could be called up in this way. However, the Defence Legislation Amendment Act 1992 further provided that any such proclamation is of no effect until it is approved by both Houses of Parliament. Though actual legislation is not required, the effect of this provision is to make the introduction of conscription impossible without the approval of both the Senate and the House of Representatives, Gary Brown (October 12, 1999). "Current Issues Brief 7 1999-2000 — Military Conscription: Issues for Australia". Parliamentary library; Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade Group. http://www.aph.gov.au/library/pubs/cib/1999-2000/2000cib07.htm. Retrieved on 2007-08-10.
^ Country report and updates: Bulgaria22 Oct 2008, War Resisters' International, 22 Octobar 2008, http://www.wri-irg.org/programmes/world_survey/country_report/en/Bulgaria
^ Croatia to abolish conscription military service sooner, Southeast European Times, May 10, 2007, http://www.setimes.com/cocoon/setimes/xhtml/en_GB/newsbriefs/setimes/newsbriefs/2007/10/05/nb-07, retrieved on 2008-05-30
^ Includes the overseas regions of French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, and Reunion. France, CIA World Factbook, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/fr.html, retrieved on 2008-04-09
^ Data from the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Geneva, Switzerland, 1997 indicates that Conscript Service was suspended indefinitely in 1992 and all members of the armed forces are regular volunteers. The CIA World Factbook entry for Jordan indicates based on 2004 data that conscription at age 18 was suspended in 1999, although all males under age 37 are required to register. The Child Soldiers Global Report 2008 indicates, citing "Mustafa al-Riyalat, Representatives agree flag and reserve la, ad-Dustour, April 2007", that compulsory Military Service Act No. 23 of 1986 put the minimum age limit at 18 and that this would be retained in the 2007 amendments.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d "Korea, North". CIA World Factbook. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/kn.html. Retrieved on 2007-08-12. (2008 est.)
^ "North Korea, Military Conscription and Terms of Service". Based on the Country Studies Series by Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress. http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-9627.html. Retrieved on 2007-08-12. .
^ Lebanon, CIA World Factbook, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/le.html, retrieved on 2008-05-30
^ , http://www.wri-irg.org/node/916
^ "Poland's defence minister, Bogdan Klich, said the country will move towards a professional army and that from January, only volunteers will join the armed forces.", Matthew Day (5 August 2008), Poland ends army conscription, telegraph.co.uk, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/poland/2505447/Poland-ends-army-conscription.html, retrieved on 2009-02-11
^ Background Note: Romania, Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs, US Department ofState, April 2008, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35722.htm, retrieved on 2008-05-30
^ "Taiwan". CIA World Factbook. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/tw.html. Retrieved on 2007-12-09. (estimates based on 2006 data)
^ Substitute Service Center, Department Of Compulsory Military Service, Taipei City Government, http://english.taipei.gov.tw/docms/index.jsp?categid=2073&recordid=1347, retrieved on July 25, 2008
^ Jimmy Chuang (March 10, 2009), Professional military by 2014: MND, Taipei times, http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2009/03/10/2003438077 .
^ The United States abandoned the draft in 1973 under President Richard Nixon, ended the Selective Service registration requirement in 1975 under President Gerald Ford, and then re-instated the Selective Service registration requirement in 1980 under President Jimmy Carter. Today the U.S. Selective Service System remains as a contingency, should a military draft be re-introduced. For more information see the U.S. Selective Service System website.
^ Against Conscription and the Military Training of Youth — 1930
^ Conscription, is it Slavery?, butnowyouknow.com (archived from the original on 2007-09-07).
^ Viktor Suvorov, The Liberators ISBN 0-241-10675-3; Hamish Hamilton, 1981.
^ Robert Higgs (April 1, 1996), War and Leviathan in Twentieth-Century America; Conscription as the Keystone, http://www.independent.org/newsroom/article.asp?id=136, retrieved on 2007-12-05 , citing Ronald Schaffer (1991), America in the Great War: The Rise of the War Welfare State, Oxford University Press, p. 52, ISBN 0195049047
^ Henderson, David R. "The Role of Economists in Ending the Draft" (August 2005).
^ Milton Friedman (1967). "Why Not a Volunteer Army?". New Individualist Review. http://oll.libertyfund.org/?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=2136&chapter=195469&layout=html&Itemid=27#c_NIR_1360-016_footnote_nt1046. Retrieved on 9 11 2008.
^ "Conscription is alive and well in Switzerland. When a male Swiss reaches the age of 20, he must undergo 15 weeks of military training. Over the next 22 to 32 years, he'll attend a succession of two- to three-week training camps during until he's accrued 300 to 1,300 days of active service. (Service requirements depend on rank: the higher the rank, the more years and accrued days are required.)", The Swiss Army, europeforvisitors.com, http://europeforvisitors.com/switzaustria/articles/swiss_army.htm, retrieved on 2008-11-04
^ "The Swiss were emulated and pikemen or other shock infantry were developed elsewhere. Other shock infantry used halberds, bills, poleaxes and two handed swords, such as the German landsknechts.", Nicholas C. J. Pappas, Armies and Warfare in Early Modern Times: General Trends., self-published (credentialed expert), http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/594N01.html, retrieved on 2008-11-04
^ ^a ^b Kaskeala, J. Suomalaisten turvallisuutta kohennetaan koetuin konstein 24-1-2005. Retrieved 12-5-2007. (Finnish)
^ Puolustusvoimat: Varusmieheksi 2006. Retrieved 2/8/2007. In Finnish
^ Kaskeala, J. (2006) Vaikka puolustusvoimat supistuu, tarvitsemme yleisen asevelvollisuuden. Retrieved 2/9/2007. In Finnish
^ Tykistöprikaati: Erikoispalvelutehtävät Retrieved 2/8/2007. In Finnish
^ "Varusmieskoulutuksen kevennetty alku säästää paukkuja loppusotaan" (in Finnish). Turun Sanomat. 2006-08-26. http://www.turunsanomat.fi/kotimaa/?ts=1,3:1002:0:0,4:2:0:1:2006-08-26,104:2:400747,1:0:0:0:0:0:.
^ Rousseau, J-J. Social Contract. Chapter "The Roman Comitia]
^ Aristotle, Politics, Book 6 Chapter VII and Book 4 Chapter XIII.
^ The State and War - Chapter 9, Libertarianism
^ The Moral Equivalent of War - William James, 1906
^ Crime is real enemy within - Published: 05 Jul 2008 (The Sun (UK)
^ 'Bring back National Service to cure yobs' - Telegraph (By Anil Dawar) Last Updated: 1:03AM BST 10 Jul 2006
^ Yes, National service does work - Daily Express | Express Yourself (Tuesday July 15,2008) By Jane Warren
^ Five held over teenager's death - BBC NEWS England,London (Page last updated at 14:11 GMT, Sunday, 6 July 2008 15:11 UK)
^ Number10.gov.uk » stopyobs - epetition response - 13 March 2008
^ Gustav Hägglund (2006) (in Finnish), Leijona ja kyyhky, Otava, ISBN 9511211617

External links

Look up conscription in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

War Resisters' International
Refusing to bear arms: a survey around the world, conducted by "War Resisters' International" about conscription and conscientious objection to military service.
Manifesto Against Conscription and the Military System, with an updated list of all signatories from 1993 to 2007.
Albert Einstein and Mahatma Gandhi. Manifesto Against Conscription and the Military System.
War Resisters League (USA)
Resisters.info — the draft, draft registration, and draft resistance in the USA
MedicalDraft.info — the medical draft ("Health Care Personnel Delivery System") in the USA
Is Conscription Slavery?
Campaign to Abolish Mandatory Military Service in Slovakia
Rangel calls for mandatory military service
The Association for Injured Officers And Soldiers of Mandatory Military Service, Republic of China
The European Bureau for Conscientious Objection
Campaign Against Conscription in Greece
Canadian Newspaper Archives - Conscription
Anti-Conscription Web Ring
The History Guy:Issues: Military Draft/Conscription: Information and links on the military draft issue.
Mothers Against the Draft - list of countries with conscription
Shall We Have Universal Military Training? - World War II-era study

Categories: Conscription | Nationalism | Political theories | Youth rights

The above information uses material from Wikipedia and is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License.
Some facts may not have been fully verified for accuracy. [Disclaimers]
This page was last archived by our server on Thu Jun 11 04:46:12 2009. [ refresh local cache ]
Displaying this page or its contents does not use any Wikimedia Foundation's resources.
The owners of this site proudly support the Wikimedia Foundation.

[Hide]▼

'Conscription' News

helsinkitimes.fi

Support for conscription strong but waning

Helsinki Times (subscription), Finland

According to a survey carried out on behalf of the national daily newspaper Helsingin Sanomat, 26 per cent of Finns feel that the current system of conscripted national service should be abolished. Opinions on the matter appear to have have evolved in ...

Google News Search: conscription,
Fri Jun 5 16:47:16 2009

'Conscription' Blogs

socialist-courier.blogspot.com

Socialist Courier: A SHAMEFUL WASTE

egoutture

2009-06-13 16:11:00

WW2 saw . conscription. , but the puny condition of many of those . conscripts. was a factor in the subsequent setting up of the health service in the U.K.after it.(to get them fit to work their asses off producing surplus - value and fit to ...

Google Blogs Search: conscription,
Mon Jun 15 13:52:46 2009

'Conscription' Answers

What are some pros on conscription?
Q. Mainly in the WW1. (And more specifically, Canada) Other than the obvious of course: that it provided larger amounts of soldiers/ gives time for wounded soldiers to heal.
Asked by Dobby's Sock - Sun Oct 26 12:49:41 2008 - - 2 Answers - 0 Comments

Yahoo Answers Search: conscription,
Sun Jun 14 03:27:05 2009

[Hide]▲

top user searches:	"enduring freedom"	"involuntarily"	"military family"	"draft"
top user searches:

or search for "conscription" in:	Web:	The Entire Web	Web Directories	Related* Sites
	This Site:	Page Titles	Karr Network Sites*
	News:	Headlines	Weather	Events	Blogs
	Reference:	Encyclopedia	Dictionary	eTexts	Quotes
		Local Map	Answers
	Multimedia:	Images	Videos
	People:	Discussion Groups	Social Networking
	Shopping:	General Items	Consumer Opinion	Auctions	Classifieds

Contents

History

Feudal levies

Military slavery

Invention of modern conscription

Conscientious objection

Draft evaders

Draft resisters

Countries with and without mandatory military service

Arguments against conscription

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Slavery

Ageism

Sexism

Discipline problems

Nationalism and promoting militarism

Justification for attacks on civilians

Quality

Economics

Draft as a tool to subjugate society

Arguments for conscription

Valuable training

Rite of passage

Draft as protection against democracy-destroying military coups

Manpower

Conscript quality

Political and moral motives

Economics

See also

References

Further reading

External links

See Also:

Related 'Conscription' Searches:

Conscription Facts (United States) @ Involuntarily.org